Of all anthropogenic pressures, urbanisation is one of the most damaging, and is expanding in its influence throughout the world. In Australia, 90% of the human population live in urban centres along the eastern seaboard. Before European settlement in the early 1800s, much of the Australia's East coast was dominated by forests. Many of the forest dependent fauna have had to adapt to forest fragmentation and habitat loss resulting from clearing for urbanisation. However, relatively few studies have investigated the impact of urbanisation on biodiversity. This is especially true for the remaining fauna in large metropolitan areas, such as Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane. The physical and conceptual context of this thesis is the increasing impact of urbanisation and the potentially threatening factors to forest dependent fauna. Bats were selected because they comprise a third of Australia's mammal species, and therefore form a major component of Australia's biodiversity. Very little is known about the ecology and conservation biology of hollow-dependent bats in general, but particularly in urban environments. The study was conducted in Brisbane, south-east Queensland, one of Australia's most biodiverse regions. More than a third of Australia's bat species occur in this region. A large insectivorous bat, the white-striped freetail bat (Tadarida australis), was selected to study two key resources in this urban area - hollow availability and foraging habitat. This thesis also examined if artificial roost habitat could provide temporary roosts for white-striped freetail bats and other insectivorous bats and assessed whether these bat boxes can be used as a conservation tool in urban environments where natural hollow-availability is limited. The white-striped freetail bat is an obligate hollow-dweller and roosted largely in hollows of old or dead eucalypts throughout Brisbane's urban matrix. These roost trees harboured significantly more additional hollow-dependent species compared to control trees of similar age, height, and tree diameter. Roost cavities inside trees often exceeded 30 cm in diameter. Furthermore, maternity colonies used cavities of hollow trunks, which often extended into major branches, to roost in big numbers. Therefore artificial alternatives, such as small bat boxes, may provide temporary shelter for small roosting groups, but are unlikely to be suitable substitutes for habitat loss. Although five bat species used bat boxes during this study, the white-striped freetail bat was not attracted into bat boxes. Roost-switching behaviour was then used to quantify associations between individual white-striped freetail bats of a roosting group. Despite differences in gender and reproductive seasons, the bats exhibited the same behaviour throughout three radio-telemetry periods and over 500 bat-days of radio-tracking: each roosted in separate roosts, switched roosts very infrequently, and associated with other tagged bats only at a communal roost. Furthermore, the communal roost exhibited a hub of socialising between members of the roosting group especially at night, with vocalisation and swarming behaviour not found at any of the other roosts. Despite being spread over a large geographic area (up to 200 km2), each roost was connected to others by less than three links. One roost (the communal roost) defined the architecture of the network because it had the most links. That the network showed scale-free properties has profound implications for the management of the habitat trees of this roosting group. Scale-free networks provide high tolerance against stochastic events such as random roost removals, but are susceptible to the selective removal of hub nodes, such as the communal roost. The white-striped freetail bat flew at high speed and covered large distances in search for food. It foraged over all land-cover types found in Brisbane. However, its observed foraging behaviour was non-random with respect to both spatial location and the nature of the ground-level habitat. The main feeding areas were within three kilometers of the communal roost, predominantly over the Brisbane River flood plains. As the only mammal capable of flight, bats can forage above fragmented habitats. However, as this study showed, hollow-dependent insectivorous bats, including free-tailed bats, are specialised in their roosting requirements. The ongoing protection of hollow-bearing trees, and the ongoing recruitment of future hollow-bearing trees, is essential for the long-term conservation of these animals in highly fragmented landscapes. Furthermore, loss of foraging habitat is still poorly understood, and should be considered in the ongoing conservation of bats in urban environments.

Habitat requirements and habitat use for Pseudophryne australis and Heleioporus australiacus were investigated to aid management of these threatened frogs around Sydney, Australia. Much of the work focussed on roads, commonly encountered features in the habitat of both species. The habitat requirements based on locality records of both frogs in the Sydney Basin were investigated at four spatial scales. Both species are habitat specialists. They showed a strong geological association with Hawkesbury Sandstone and occupy upper topographic areas with ephemeral watercourses of gentle gradients. Both frogs occur predominantly in areas of higher precipitation and milder temperature regimes compared to averages representative of the region. Leaf litter is an important feature of P. australis breeding sites, whereas H australiacus generally associate with crayfish burrows. Both species are dependent on natural vegetation with a complex structure. H australiacus have a relatively long larval period (3 - 12 months) and breed in ephemeral pools, exposing their tadpoles to the risk of dying due to early pond drying. In the laboratory, tadpoles responded to decreasing water levels by shortening their larval periods and metamorphosing earlier than siblings held at constant water level. Despite this plastic response, a number of pools in the field failed to produce metamorphs due to early drying, an observation also made on P. australis. Regular monitoring of breeding sites revealed increased reproductive success away from roads for both species probably because of relatively longer hydroperiods. Spatial distributions and associations with habitat features, and movement patterns of both frogs were further investigated using mark-recapture methods. Both species showed strong site fidelity. P. australis formed small aggregations and predominantly selected leaf litter piles despite their relatively low availability. Leaf litter piles in creeks moved over time and the animals moved with these piles. In contrast, H australiacus individuals formed no aggregations and showed no preference for any available structural vegetation type. Locations of individuals were independent of relative distances to creeks and artificial drains, but males appeared to be more common near culverts. However, individuals were randomly distributed in space and nearest-neighbour distances were high relative to individual movement distances, suggesting minimal overlap between relatively large home ranges. Radio-telemetry demonstrated that some H australiacus individuals burrow in the road environment. There they would be at risk of being dug up and possibly injured during road works. The results are discussed in relation to the spatial requirements of both species and the protection of utilised habitat features. Management options are suggested to mitigate the impacts of road works. Differences in spatial dynamics of both frogs with overlapping habitats highlighted in this study require species-specific management approaches.

Habitat requirements and habitat use for Pseudophryne australis and Heleioporus australiacus were investigated to aid management of these threatened frogs around Sydney, Australia. Much of the work focussed on roads, commonly encountered features in the habitat of both species. The habitat requirements based on locality records of both frogs in the Sydney Basin were investigated at four spatial scales. Both species are habitat specialists. They showed a strong geological association with Hawkesbury Sandstone and occupy upper topographic areas with ephemeral watercourses of gentle gradients. Both frogs occur predominantly in areas of higher precipitation and milder temperature regimes compared to averages representative of the region. Leaf litter is an important feature of P. australis breeding sites, whereas H australiacus generally associate with crayfish burrows. Both species are dependent on natural vegetation with a complex structure. H australiacus have a relatively long larval period (3 - 12 months) and breed in ephemeral pools, exposing their tadpoles to the risk of dying due to early pond drying. In the laboratory, tadpoles responded to decreasing water levels by shortening their larval periods and metamorphosing earlier than siblings held at constant water level. Despite this plastic response, a number of pools in the field failed to produce metamorphs due to early drying, an observation also made on P. australis. Regular monitoring of breeding sites revealed increased reproductive success away from roads for both species probably because of relatively longer hydroperiods. Spatial distributions and associations with habitat features, and movement patterns of both frogs were further investigated using mark-recapture methods. Both species showed strong site fidelity. P. australis formed small aggregations and predominantly selected leaf litter piles despite their relatively low availability. Leaf litter piles in creeks moved over time and the animals moved with these piles. In contrast, H australiacus individuals formed no aggregations and showed no preference for any available structural vegetation type. Locations of individuals were independent of relative distances to creeks and artificial drains, but males appeared to be more common near culverts. However, individuals were randomly distributed in space and nearest-neighbour distances were high relative to individual movement distances, suggesting minimal overlap between relatively large home ranges. Radio-telemetry demonstrated that some H australiacus individuals burrow in the road environment. There they would be at risk of being dug up and possibly injured during road works. The results are discussed in relation to the spatial requirements of both species and the protection of utilised habitat features. Management options are suggested to mitigate the impacts of road works. Differences in spatial dynamics of both frogs with overlapping habitats highlighted in this study require species-specific management approaches.

This research study addresses a problem of water pollution caused by heavy and toxic metals Cd, Cr, Cu and Pb. The thesis proposes the use of the technique of phytoremediation using Phragmites australis (PA) plants that have the capacity to absorb and to accumulate such metals in their roots and leaves. The metal uptake and their location of accumulation in the PA plants were determined using flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) respectively. Leachates from contaminated plant biomass were mixed with silver nitrate to assess the manufacture of metal nanoparticles as an added value step in the process from remediation to biomass disposal. Silver nanoparticles were readily manufactured by the leachates without, with the exception of copper, any incorporation of the pollutant metal. The presence of copper in the manufactured silver nanoparticles may be of some commercial use. The results obtained show that PA plants will accumulate toxic metals when in hydroponic culture and that the majority of the accumulated metals are sequestered in the roots and do not enter the aerial parts of the plants in significant amounts. Silver nanoparticles were manufactured from the biomass using a low energy route with no additional chemicals, apart from silver nitrate thus reducing the environmental load that would otherwise be present if a chemical means of nanoparticle production was used.

Copies of author's previously published articles inserted. / Bibliography: p. 199-254. / xii, 254 p., [34] leaves, [30] leaves of plates : ill. ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / In eutherian mammals, the size of the testes and number of spermatozoa produced and stored in the excurrent ducts vary widely between species, with the hydromyine rodents of Australia exhibiting a greater range of interspecific variation than any other closely related group of species. This study compared the efficiency of germ cell production and sperm storage capacity in the extra-testicular ducts of two arid zone species, the plains rat, Pseudomys australis, and the spinifex hopping mouse, Notomys alexis, that have vast differences in testes size and number of stored spermatozoa. Results are discussed. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Anatomical Science, 2000

Habitat requirements and habitat use for Pseudophryne australis and Heleioporus australiacus were investigated to aid management of these threatened frogs around Sydney, Australia. Much of the work focussed on roads, commonly encountered features in the habitat of both species. The habitat requirements based on locality records of both frogs in the Sydney Basin were investigated at four spatial scales. Both species are habitat specialists. They showed a strong geological association with Hawkesbury Sandstone and occupy upper topographic areas with ephemeral watercourses of gentle gradients. Both frogs occur predominantly in areas of higher precipitation and milder temperature regimes compared to averages representative of the region. Leaf litter is an important feature of P. australis breeding sites, whereas H australiacus generally associate with crayfish burrows. Both species are dependent on natural vegetation with a complex structure. H australiacus have a relatively long larval period (3 - 12 months) and breed in ephemeral pools, exposing their tadpoles to the risk of dying due to early pond drying. In the laboratory, tadpoles responded to decreasing water levels by shortening their larval periods and metamorphosing earlier than siblings held at constant water level. Despite this plastic response, a number of pools in the field failed to produce metamorphs due to early drying, an observation also made on P. australis. Regular monitoring of breeding sites revealed increased reproductive success away from roads for both species probably because of relatively longer hydroperiods. Spatial distributions and associations with habitat features, and movement patterns of both frogs were further investigated using mark-recapture methods. Both species showed strong site fidelity. P. australis formed small aggregations and predominantly selected leaf litter piles despite their relatively low availability. Leaf litter piles in creeks moved over time and the animals moved with these piles. In contrast, H australiacus individuals formed no aggregations and showed no preference for any available structural vegetation type. Locations of individuals were independent of relative distances to creeks and artificial drains, but males appeared to be more common near culverts. However, individuals were randomly distributed in space and nearest-neighbour distances were high relative to individual movement distances, suggesting minimal overlap between relatively large home ranges. Radio-telemetry demonstrated that some H australiacus individuals burrow in the road environment. There they would be at risk of being dug up and possibly injured during road works. The results are discussed in relation to the spatial requirements of both species and the protection of utilised habitat features. Management options are suggested to mitigate the impacts of road works. Differences in spatial dynamics of both frogs with overlapping habitats highlighted in this study require species-specific management approaches.

Severe population bottlenecks and the small size of many remnant habitats may render many bird populations prone to extinction from disease outbreaks. Bottlenecks may increase inbreeding which in turn may result in a low diversity of resistance and an immune system that is impaired or defective. Thus, bottlenecked populations may be less immunocompetent and more vulnerable to microbiological and parasitic perturbations. Few studies have assessed the effect of bottlenecks on the immunocompetence of birds. In this study, I used twelve saddleback (Philesturnus carunculatus) and two New Zealand robin (Petroica a. australis) populations, to determine if the severe bottlenecks reduce the immunocompetence of birds. When I experimentally challenged the immune system of two robin populations I found that despite the two populations having similar parasite loads, robins from the severely bottlenecked Motuara Island population exhibited a significantly lower T-cell mediated immune response than the source population (Nukuwaiata Island) suggesting that birds passing through severe population bottlenecks have a compromised immunocompetence. In the saddleback, severe bottlenecks, as well as high population densities and small island size, lead to individuals exhibiting higher stress levels and feather mite loads and lower immune function, as was evident by lower lymphocyte counts. I did not find levels of fluctuating asymmetry of saddlebacks to be directly influenced by bottleneck size. However, I did find that individuals with higher levels of fluctuating asymmetry had higher loads of hippoboscid flies and lower loads of coccidia suggesting a possible trade-off between growth and immune function. In contrast to previous studies looking at behavioural secondary sexual traits, I found no effect of founder number on the size of wattles in saddleback. I did however demonstrate that wattle size reflected the level of immune function in females as well as males, suggesting that females play a far greater role in offspring fitness than has been appreciated in traditional theories of sexual selection. Overall, my results indicate that severe bottlenecks can lead to reductions in immunocompetence in the resulting populations, especially in those populations that pass through the most severe bottlenecks. Based on the evidence from my thesis, I recommend conservation managers should aim to use at least 90 individuals to found new populations in order to reduce the deleterious effects of bottlenecks on immune function. If the costs of population bottlenecks and inbreeding are to be avoided, conservationists must adequately address the role of genetic factors in susceptibility to disease, and work towards minimising the risk of severe population bottlenecks in the management of endangered birds

Habitat requirements and habitat use for Pseudophryne australis and Heleioporus australiacus were investigated to aid management of these threatened frogs around Sydney, Australia. Much of the work focussed on roads, commonly encountered features in the habitat of both species. The habitat requirements based on locality records of both frogs in the Sydney Basin were investigated at four spatial scales. Both species are habitat specialists. They showed a strong geological association with Hawkesbury Sandstone and occupy upper topographic areas with ephemeral watercourses of gentle gradients. Both frogs occur predominantly in areas of higher precipitation and milder temperature regimes compared to averages representative of the region. Leaf litter is an important feature of P. australis breeding sites, whereas H australiacus generally associate with crayfish burrows. Both species are dependent on natural vegetation with a complex structure. H australiacus have a relatively long larval period (3 - 12 months) and breed in ephemeral pools, exposing their tadpoles to the risk of dying due to early pond drying. In the laboratory, tadpoles responded to decreasing water levels by shortening their larval periods and metamorphosing earlier than siblings held at constant water level. Despite this plastic response, a number of pools in the field failed to produce metamorphs due to early drying, an observation also made on P. australis. Regular monitoring of breeding sites revealed increased reproductive success away from roads for both species probably because of relatively longer hydroperiods. Spatial distributions and associations with habitat features, and movement patterns of both frogs were further investigated using mark-recapture methods. Both species showed strong site fidelity. P. australis formed small aggregations and predominantly selected leaf litter piles despite their relatively low availability. Leaf litter piles in creeks moved over time and the animals moved with these piles. In contrast, H australiacus individuals formed no aggregations and showed no preference for any available structural vegetation type. Locations of individuals were independent of relative distances to creeks and artificial drains, but males appeared to be more common near culverts. However, individuals were randomly distributed in space and nearest-neighbour distances were high relative to individual movement distances, suggesting minimal overlap between relatively large home ranges. Radio-telemetry demonstrated that some H australiacus individuals burrow in the road environment. There they would be at risk of being dug up and possibly injured during road works. The results are discussed in relation to the spatial requirements of both species and the protection of utilised habitat features. Management options are suggested to mitigate the impacts of road works. Differences in spatial dynamics of both frogs with overlapping habitats highlighted in this study require species-specific management approaches.

O Complexo Principal de Histocompatibilidade (MHC) é um sistema genético reconhecidamente polimórfico em populações humanas. Em porções específicas dos genes que compõem o MHC de populações humanas também foi evidenciada a ação da seleção natural em nível molecular. Em várias espécies de vertebrados onde estes genes foram estudados diferentes níveis de variação, composição gênica e organização foram detectados, mantendo, entretanto, as características que os tornam tão interessante de ser estudados. Para mamíferos marinhos, as questões sobre a variação no MHC servem de pano de fundo para o entendimento sobre o sistema imunológico destas espécies e suas particularidades em relação ao ambiente marinho e a evolução destes genes em organismos não-modelos. No presente trabalho, duas espécies de cetáceos, a toninha ou franciscana (Pontoporia blainvillei) e a baleia-franca-austral (Eubalaena australis), foram investigadas quanto aos níveis de variação no gene DQB1 do MHC. O segundo exon da cadeia beta do gene DQ foi amplificado em 25 amostras de toninha e 18 amostras de baleia franca. Os fragmentos de 212pb (pares de base) resultantes do processo de amplificação foram clonados e, tiveram analisados por seqüenciamento 171pb correspondentes ao sítio de ligação ao peptídeo antigênico (PBR). Uma amostra de toninha e um par mãe-filhote de baleia-franca-austral foram analisadas quanto à expressão do gene DQB a partir de amostras de pele. A evidência de seleção natural a nível molecular nesta porção do gene é confirmada por um excesso de substituições não sinônimas em relação às substituições sinônimas (em um contexto de neutralidade as substituições sinônimas acumulam-se na mesma taxa de mutações) através da razão dN (não sinônimas) e dS (sinônimas). Para confirmar os desvios da neutralidade (Ho= dN/dS=1), foi usada a estatística z. Os valores de dN/dS para toninha e baleia-franca-austral foram, respectivamente, dN/dS = 2,32 (p=0,014) e dN/dS =3,75 (p= 0,001). Estes valores, as características das seqüências e a evidência de expressão desses genes na pele de cetáceos estão de acordo com os pressupostos de seleção positiva para esta região do gene e sugerem funcionalidade para estes genes nestas duas espécies. Há evidências de mais de uma cópia do gene para baleia-franca-austral. Foram descritos 6 alelos para toninha e 17 alelos para baleia-franca-austral sendo que um dos alelos é compartilhado entre as duas espécies, sugerindo que essa linhagem alélica é anterior à divergência entre odontocetos e misticetos. Paralelamente a este trabalho, o cariótipo de toninha foi descrito através de um processo de cultivo celular a partir da córnea de dois exemplares recém-mortos. Seu número cromossômico 2n=44 corrobora a estabilidade cariotípica descrita para cetáceos. / The Major Histocompatibility Complex is a highly polimorphic genetic system described to human populations. It is clear that a particular region from these genes is under natural selection which results in different patterns of variation from those expected under neutrality. In other vertebrates these genes were studied, these special characteristics seems to be preserved despite specific genomic organization and variation levels. In marine mammals, questions adressed to MHC molecular variation are focused in questions concerned on environmental restrictions and molecular evolution in non-model organisms. In the present study, two marine mammal species were surveyed concerning genetic variability using the gene DQB exon 2. Samples from 25 franciscana dolphins (Pontoporia blainvillei) and 18 southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) were used to amplify a 212bp (base pair) fragment from DQB exon 2. The 171bp resulting fragment was sequenced and analized in relation to the molecular level evidence of selection. Rates of nonsynonymous (dN) and synonymous (dS) base pair substitution and departures from neutrality for dN/dS (z statistics) were calculated. For both species examined, molecular evidence of selection was confirmed. The dN/dS ratios to franciscana and southern right whale were 2.32 (p=0.014) and 3.75 (p=0.001), respectively. These values, combined to data on DQB gene expression in franciscana and southern right whale skin and less restrictive aminoacid usage in both species, suggest a functional signature to sequences cetacean derived. Additionally, 6 alleles were described to franciscana dolphins and 17 to southern right whales. One more evidence of selection acting in this particular genomic region is provided from the fact that both species share one allele, suggesting that this allelic lineage was present before the splitting between mysticeti and odontoceti. To provide addtional information on franciscana dolphins the karyotype of P. blainvillei is presented. The karyotype was obtained from corneal culture of two dead animals. The diploid number 44 confirms the clear prevalence of this pattern among cetaceans.

Arctocephalus australis (Zimmermann, 1783) (lobo-marinho-sul-americano), é um carnívoro marinho com ampla distribuição, que ocorre nas costas leste e oeste da América do Sul, desde o Peru até o Brasil. O maior número de registros de espécimes de A. australis no Brasil ocorre no estado do Rio Grande do Sul, onde estão localizadas as duas principais áreas de concentração de pinípedes no País. Apesar de não haver colônias reprodutivas da espécie no litoral brasileiro, todos os anos, principalmente no período entre junho e outubro, inúmeros animais (vivos e mortos) são encontrados no litoral do País. O objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar as causas de morte mais comuns nos animais que ocorrem no litoral norte do estado do Rio Grande do Sul em 2012 e 2013. Para isso, foi realizada necropsia em 50 animais encontrados mortos na praia. Dos animais necropsiados, 30% tiveram a morte associada com trauma severo, apresentando laceração da musculatura, hemorragia extensa e politraumatismo e 8% trauma severo com laceração da musculatura e hemorragia extensa. Ainda 14% tiveram como causa mortis alterações no trato respiratório, 6% apresentaram alterações no trato gastrointestinal, 4% no sistema muscular, 4% no sistema nervoso central, 2% no sistema hepático e 2% com alterações no trato reprodutivo. Ainda, 18% tiveram a morte associada à caquexia e em 12% não foi possível concluir a causa da morte. Os principais achados são discutidos, bem como fatores antrópicos e não antrópicos que podem ter causado ou contribuído para o óbito dos animais.