Anorexia nervosa is a serious problem that affects over one million males yearly. It is often misdiagnosed and overlooked completely in clinical, medical and school settings because of the misperception that it is a disorder exclusively present in females. The DSM-IV largely contributes to this misnomer due to the gender-biased criteria. The purpose of this exploratory study was to identify the etiology and clinical characteristics of male anorexia and devise a more comprehensive definition of anorexia nervosa that encompasses both males and females. An additional purpose was to develop an instrument that identifies risk factors associated with anorexia nervosa in males and aid mental health and medical practitioners in making this diagnosis. A review of literature illuminated unique features of the male anorexic as well as characteristics shared with females. The Assessment of Anorexia Nervosa in Males Questionnaire (AANMQ) was developed for this study to assess an expert panel's clinical observations regarding potential misdiagnosis and treatment gaps among males with anorexia nervosa. This panel included one male anorexic, one parent of an anorexic male, and eight mental health and medical practitioners who were selected based on personal and clinical experiences working with male anorexics. Data were collected via face-to-face and telephone interviews. A compilation of literature and the expert panel's responses to the AANMQ resulted in the content suggested for the Assessment of Male Anorexia Nervosa (AMAN), a diagnostic inventory that provides a comprehensive profile specific to male anorexics. This instrument is to be used by mental health and medical practitioners for the diagnosis of this disorder. Even when anorexia nervosa is correctly diagnosed, services for males are selective and inadequate due to treatment models being geared toward a female population. The AMAN compensates for the missing elements and gender-biased nature of DSM-IV and permits accurate assessment and diagnosis of male anorexia. / Ph. D.

The present study examined the relationships among body image, psychological health, and happiness in adult women. One hundred and ninety-six women, with an average age of 40 years were surveyed. Within the sample three age groups were established; college age women, middle age women, and elderly women. Each participant completed the Body Esteem Scale (Franzoi & Shields, 1984), the Eating Attitudes Test (Garner & Garfinkel, 1979), the Life Satisfaction Index A (Neugarten, Havigburst, & Tobin, 1961), the Global Motivation Scale (Guay, Blais, Vallerand, & Pelletier, 1999), the Self-Rating Depression Scale (Zung, 1964), and the Life Orientation Test (Scheier & Carver, 1985). The results of Pearson correlations and analysis of variance support the hypothesized relationship between body image and happiness. Results indicate that happiness significantly and positively correlated with the three components of body esteem; sexual attractiveness, weight concern, and physical condition. Contrary to one of the hypotheses of the present study, there were no significant differences between the types of body satisfaction expressed by women of different ages. However, support was found for correlations between body satisfaction and depression, optimism, unhealthy eating attitudes, and motivation for life. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of recognizing body image as a major contributor to overall life happiness.

Research has begun to focus on advertising and its effects on women and their body image. These effects come in the form of social comparison theory, Americans intense preoccupation with weight and increasing statistics of eating disorders among women. In addition, there is an overwhelming drive for thinness in American women today. In many previous studies body image perception has been closely linked to content in advertisements. The purpose of this study was to compare the differences of model body types in magazines using two variables: ethnicity and income. Both variables were explored in conjunction with eating disorders to see how they had impacted body image in the past. Four magazines were chosen: two Black magazines (Essence and Ebony) and two white magazines (Cosmopolitan and W). Fifty-two advertisements were chosen from the four magazines to be divided and placed into seven surveys. Data was collected from the survey responses on body image and demographic questions. The results of separate tests supported the hypothesized difference in ethnicity. However, the t-tests did not support the hypothesized difference in income. Results indicated a significant difference in the heavier weight of models used in Black magazines versus non-Black magazines but no difference in the thinness of models in magazines aimed at high income groups versus moderately high income groups. The results are discussed based on exploring the limitations of the research for both variables examined, questions raised throughout the study and future directions for the research.

American females are socialized from birth to believe that physical attractiveness is culturally valued (Bernscheild, Walster, & Bohrnstedt, 1973). It also has been determined that body image concerns are strong motivators of dieting and exercising behaviors and may affect clothing attitudes (Cash & Hicks, 1990; Cash, Novy, & Grant, 1993). Body-self relations is a self-attitude composed of affective, cognitive, and behavior dispositions toward one’s body. Since physical attractiveness is highly valued and the media focus on a young and thin body as an important factor of physical attractiveness (Moriarty & Moriarty, 1988), individuals may increase exercise involvement to reach an ideal body image. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among body-self relations, level of exercise involvement, and exercise clothing attitude for women in regular exercise programs. Subjects were women members of four different aerobic exercise programs in Blacksburg, Virginia. A questionnaire regarding body-self relations, exercise involvement, exercise clothing attitude, and demographics was developed and pilot tested. Body image was measured with two domains of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire: appearance and physical fitness. Exercise involvement was used as the indicator of the time and effort devoted to altering or forming one’s appearance through exercise. Exercise clothing attitude was measured by beliefs toward three black-and-white line drawings representing different amounts of body coverage of the exercise clothing style images on a continuum of high to low body coverage. Relationships among the variables were analyzed statistically using Kendall‘s Tau and multiple regression. Validity and reliability of the questionnaire were analyzed with factor analysis and Cronbach’s alpha. The results imply the women subjects express greater concern for physical competence than with physical attractiveness. That is, being "in shape" or athletically active and competent appear to have a greater importance than engaging in grooming behaviors. Results also favor the notion that appearance management behavior (in this case, level of exercise involvement) is related to body-self relations, and consequently, the self-concept. The findings also support related research about congruence between the symbolic image of a garment and an individual’s self-concept. Thus, the exercising subject’s body-self relations can play an important role in clothing attitude. / Ph. D.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Boston University / PLEASE NOTE: Boston University Libraries did not receive an Authorization To Manage form for this thesis or dissertation. It is therefore not openly accessible, though it may be available by request. If you are the author or principal advisor of this work and would like to request open access for it, please contact us at open-help@bu.edu. Thank you. / This study grew out of the general problem area concerning the relationship between psychological factors and response to pain. The specific variable focused upon was body image, broadly defined as a constellation of body attitudes and ways of experiencing the body, two of which -- body anxiety and body boundary definiteness -- were studied intensively. Body anxiety, defined as the degree of concern, conflict or anxiety a person experiences about his body, was measured by the Homonym Test, developed by Secord. This is a word association test involving 75 words which can have either a body or a non-body meaning such as "graft" or "colon". Two general measures of anxiety, theTaylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and Holtzman's adaptation of the Elizur Content Anxiety Scale, were also administered. The second body image variable, body boundary definiteness, was defined as an index of a person's sense of differentiation from the world as a separate, intact entity. It was further considered to be an index of the development of differentiated ego boundaries, reflecting highly developed ego-functioning, and consequently, the capacity to modulate response to stress. In order to measure body boundary definiteness, the barrier score of Fisher and Cleveland was used. This score is based on an analysis of inkblot responses emphasizing protective, containing or concealing features. Three aspects of response to pain were studied; these were pain perception, pain tolerance, and adaptation to pain. Operationally, pain perception was measured in terms of the intensity at which an electric shock to the forearm was judged as "uncomfortable" and the level at which it was judged as "painful ". Pain tolerance was likewise measured in two ways. The first, "unmotivated tolerance level", was the point at which subjects first refused to receive higher intensities of shock. The second, "motivated tolerance level", was the point at which subjects refused to go higher following mild urging to go as high as they possibly could. Finally, adaptation to pain was measured in terms of the amount of increase in each of the pain perception and tolerance levels as a result of repeating the level setting procedure following a period of repeated shocks. The specific hypotheses tested in the study were: 1) Definiteness of body boundaries is positively correlated with pain perception threshold. 2) Body anxiety is negatively correlated with pain perception threshold. 3) Definiteness of body boundaries is positively correlated with ability to tolerate pain. 4) Body anxiety is negatively correlated with ability to tolerate pain. 5) Definiteness of body boundaries is positively correlated with adaptation to pain. 6) Body anxiety is negatively correlated with adaptation to pain. The results, based on a sample of 30 subjects, supported only hypotheses one and three, those involving body boundary definiteness. There were significant correlations between the Barrier scores and painful level, unmotivated tolerance level, and motivated tolerance level. The hypothesized relationship between body anxiety and pain perception and pain tolerance were not supported by the experimental results. Neither of the body image variables was correlated with adaptation to pain as stated in hypotheses five and six. This was seen to be the result of the fact that most of the subjects were highly stable in their judgements about pain and in their ability to tolerate pain. Thus, adaptation did not occur. In addition, it was found that the Holtzman Content Anxiety scores were negatively correlated with the two pain tolerance measures. There was a tendency toward an inverted-U shaped relationship between tvlanifest Anxiety and pain perception level and motivated tolerance level. The results of the study were considered to provide partial support for the assumption that body image variables are relevant to response to pain. / 2999-01-01

Relationships between body dissatisfaction, dieting methods, father absence, and puberty timing were investigated in this study. Participants included adolescent females from Wave 1 of the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health. Logistic regression results indicated that girls without a biological father in the home were significantly more likely to have an early onset of puberty than on-time or late. Girls who experienced early puberty exhibited higher levels of body dissatisfaction, but didn't use more dieting methods. Early onset girls more likely used dieting methods if their biological father was present than absent; however, no significant difference in body dissatisfaction was shown. A negative relationship with fathers indicated more body dissatisfaction. None of the attained findings were found when the biological mother was absent, and having a stepfather did not seem to matter. Evidence was revealed that fathers play a role in their daughters' view of their own bodies.

Body image may be defined as the perception or attitude one has regarding the appearance of his or her body. Body image concerns are not only central to the diagnostic criteria of eating disorders, but also create distress for nonclinical populations. Females (n = 167) from three universities participated in a study by completing the Eating Disorder Inventory - 2 (Garner, 1991) and the Figure Rating Scale (Stunkard, Sorenson, & Schulsinger, 1983); watching a video; and then completing the instruments again. Subjects in the treatment group (n = 89) viewed a video designed to increase awareness of unrealistic body sizes and shapes seen in the media (Kilbourne, 1995). Subjects in the comparison group (n = 77) viewed a video unrelated to female body image.

Student Number : 9901978A - MA research report - School of Human and Community Development - Faculty of Humanities / This research explored the relationship between gender identity, body image and ego strength in men. A questionnaire consisting of a demographic section, the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Adonis Complex Questionnaire- Revised, and the Psychosocial Inventory of Ego Strength was administered to 74 male students from the School of Actuarial Science and Statistics at the University of the Witwatersrand during lecture time. Correlation analyses were used to infer the relationships between the three variables, while a multiple regression assessed whether particular combinations of gender identity and ego strength could predict higher body image dissatisfaction. The results showed that both masculinity and androgyny had a positive effect on body image satisfaction, as did higher ego strength. The latter was also positively correlated with both femininity and masculinity, though not with androgyny. Body image disturbance did not correlate with any dimension of gender identity or ego strength. With regard to the interaction between the variables, higher ego strength was found to have a moderating effect on body image dissatisfaction in men who endorsed femininity, but not with men who endorsed masculinity. An androgynous orientation further predicted lower body image dissatisfaction irrespective of the degree of ego strength. Limitations of the study and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Severe perineal trauma with injury to the anal sphincter at childbirth can have a profound effect on the physical and psychological wellbeing of women. This thesis describes literature examining resulting outcomes including effects on body image. It describes patient-based outcome measures used to capture this information, and evaluation of their psychometric properties. Body Image can be defined as an individual's perceptions and feelings about their own body. There is a growing interest in how this concept can influence quality of life and psychosocial dysfunction in medical disorders. This thesis aimed to examine relationships between severity of perineal trauma, general and genital specific body image and potentially influences such as symptoms of pelvic floor dysfunction. No patient-reported outcome measure validated for use in women after anal sphincter injury exists and this thesis also aimed to psychometrically evaluate an existing electronic questionnaire, ePAQ (electronic personal assessment questionnaire), for this application. In the thesis, a retrospective review of body image and physical outcomes attending a perineal clinic shows over half of women report perceived changes in body image after anal sphincter injury, with negative effects on self-esteem. A prospective observational cohort study explored genital and general body image in primiparous women grouped according to degree of perineal trauma or caesarean delivery. Women completed the Female Genital Self Image Score, the modified Body Image Score, ePAQ and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale a mean of 15.5 weeks (standard deviation 1.6) after delivery. There were significant differences in genital body image scores between the groups, but not in general body image, with regression analysis showing the greatest influence on genital body image to be the anatomical extent of the trauma. Embedded into this study was the evaluation of reliability (internal consistency and test-retest) and validity (face, content and construct) of ePAQ in the group of women with anal sphincter tears. This thesis presents the first research to quantify issues surrounding severe perineal trauma and body image and demonstrates that more severe trauma leads to a poorer genital body image. It also reports psychometric evaluation of ePAQ in women after anal sphincter injury providing the first single instrument with validity and reliability for use in this context.

Orientador: Eliane Mauerberg-de-Castro / Banca: José Aparecido da Silva / Banca: Afonso Antonio Machado / Banca: Catia Mary Volp / Banca: Edison Duarte / Resumo: A imagem corporal refere-se a experiências humanas incorporadas ao longo da vida sobre seu próprio corpo. É um construto multifacetado que une a percepção e as atitudes das pessoas, especialmente as preocupações e atitudes relacionadas à aparência física (Cash, Maikkula & Yamamiya, 2004). Quando distorcida, a representação da imagem corporal pode levar o indivíduo a riscos, tais como transtornos alimentares e depressão (Smolak, 2002), que estão entre os principais e mais sérios problemas clínicos encontrados em meninas adolescentes e mulheres jovens na atualidade (Shroff & Thompson, 2006). O objetivo geral deste estudo foi avaliar aspectos comportamentais e perceptivos da imagem corporal de meninas adolescentes com distúrbio de imagem corporal (GCD) e sem distúrbio de imagem corporal (GSD). Especificamente identificar se parâmetros comportamentais (i.e., nível de satisfação com o próprio corpo) são distintos entre os grupos; verificar em tarefa com silhuetas e em tarefa com imagens do próprio corpo a consistência dos sub-componentes afetivo, cognitivo e perceptivo de ambos os grupos; avaliar se parâmetros perceptivos (i.e., expoente da função psicofísica de potência e magnitude do erro no julgamento de dimensões do próprio corpo) diferem entre os grupos; verificar se parâmetros perceptivos são diferentes entre tarefas que incluem imagens da própria pessoa, de pessoa desconhecida e de estímulo neutro (i.e., projeção frontal de um cubo) e se estas possíveis diferenças ocorrem para ambos os grupos; se fatores como distúrbio de imagem, transtorno alimentar e IMC predizem o nível de insatisfação do próprio corpo e se predizem a magnitude do erro no julgamento de dimensões do próprio corpo. Para tanto, 43 participantes do GSD e 10 participantes do GCD responderam a testes e inventários (BSQ, EAT, escala de silhuetas e escala da imagem própria)... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Body image is a multi-dimensional construct that combines perceptions and attitudes about the body, particularly those that relate to physical appearance (Cash, Maikkula & Yamamiya, 2004). When body image perception is disturbed-most common amongst teenage girls (Shroff & Thompson, 2006), serious health risks may result, which include eating disorders and depression (Smolak, 2002). The purpose of this study was to assess the behavioral and perceptual aspects of body image in adolescent females with and without body image distortion, (BID) and (NBI). Specifically, it was to identify whether or not behavioral parameters are distinct between groups. The study attempted to verify, in both groups, levels of consistency in sub-components: affective, cognitive and perceptual, using tasks that portrayed the individual's own body as well as a stranger's body. Also assessed was whether or not perceptual parameters could it be determined, and whether or not perceptual parameters are different for tasks that include an individual's own body image versus those tasks that include a stranger's body image and a task with a neutral image. If differences existed between groups, the study attempted to assess whether or not body image disturbance, presence of eating disorder and BMI-body mass index (IMC) predicted levels of individual body dissatisfaction and magnitude of error when the individuals judged the dimensions of their own bodies. Forty-three participants comprised the NBI group, and ten participants comprised the BID group. In order to establish the behavioral components of body image, individuals in both groups were asked to complete questionnaires and inventories (BSQ, EAT, silhouette scale, SIL, and own body image scale, OBI). Also, psychophysical tasks were used to assess the perceptual components of body image. Results of the behavioral aspects related to body image showed that... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor