This thesis development of empirical. ABSTRACT , investigated play in two the ways: structure theoretical and and The theoretical section covers three areas. First, existing literature on animal play was reviewed to identify the basis for confusion in theories of animal play. Second, a discussion of the acquisition of the concept 'play' in humans, and its effect on our understanding of animal play revealed the appropriateness of the correct use of models and analogies in the study of play. Finally, the utility of Markov Chains, Hierarchical Cluster Analysis and the Grammatical Model in studying play, were assessed. In Chapter Six an investigation of "thB . nevelopment \.1\3: "'e.~ of social play and object 'predation'~ s owed no major ontogenetic differences. In both cases, a) there was some evidence for age changes in the composition of play/'predation': b) the majority of observations could be accounted for by a group of five 'dominant' behaviour patterns. Chapter Seven examined the function o~ 1'r~EM~p."en Mouth Play Face (OMPF) as a. play signal. Resurts indicated that the OMPF did not function speci~iCallY as a play signal in young ferrets and puppies. However, the situation was reversed for adult ferrets. There was also evidence that the OMPF was related to arousal in a way not exhibited by other play behaviour patterns. Chap~i~ml~!Sht investiga~~~bf~~ential S~~~hture in social ptay~ OBject 'predation~ an~ aggressi8~.~~esults showed great variability in tne sequences of 'oehaviour in all three contexts. All three behavioural contexts showed little variability in the identity of bout initiators and terminators. The 'grammar' constructed failed to provide a formal description of social play, aggression or object 'predation':' These results suggest that many assumptions made about the structure of play, especially with regard to other behaviours, are invalid. The study of play should proceed in terms of identifying the structural configuration of sequences of social play.

The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an important zoonotic pathogen, which has the ability to infect all warm blooded mammals including humans, with approximately one third of the human population predicted to be infected. Transmission of the parasite to the foetus during pregnancy can result in miscarriage, however, a child infected during pregnancy may go on to develop clinical symptoms such as retinochoroiditis (ocular toxoplasmosis), hydrocephalus or learning difficulties in later life. Post-natally acquired infection in humans is generally asymptomatic, however, individuals who are immunocompromised may develop ocular toxoplasmosis or toxoplasmic encephalitis. T. gondii type II is reported to be the predominant genotype in Europe and the United States, but currently very little information exists about the prevalence and genotypes present within Great Britain. Consumption of T. gondii tissue cysts from raw or undercooked meat is a main source of infection for humans, with infected pork being considered a high risk. Currently the “gold standard” for assessing the viability of infective T. gondii tissue cysts is by an in vivo mouse bioassay. However, more recent ethical requirements to reduce, refine or replace experimental animals raises the question as to whether molecular technologies could be incorporated into these studies to reduce mouse numbers. The main aims of this PhD were to: (i) determine the prevalence and genotypes of T. gondii within different wildlife populations and humans in Great Britain; (ii) determine whether vaccination of pigs with a live attenuated strain of T. gondii would reduce the load of viable T. gondii tissue cysts within this species; (iii) study the viability and dissemination of tissue cysts from oocyst and bradyzoite infected pigs and (iv) to compare mouse bioassay with molecular detection of T. gondii DNA from experimentally infected pigs. The main findings of this work show that the prevalence of T. gondii within carnivorous wildlife varied from 6.0% to 44.4% depending on the host species with type II being the predominant lineage identified, however, type III and two alleles for type I were also present. In humans, serological detection of the parasite from a group of Scottish blood donors from Glasgow and Dundee (n=1403) was determined at 13.0%, molecular detection of T. gondii in human brains (n=151) from the Sudden Death Brain Bank show a prevalence of 17.9%. A correlation between increasing age and an increase in the detection of parasite was identified from both study groups. T. gondii strain genotyping using DNA extracted from human brains identified alleles for type I and III, however, no direct link between cause of death and detection of parasite DNA could be made. Live vaccination and subsequent oocyst challenge of pigs showed a significant reduction in the establishment of viable T. gondii tissue cysts. Mouse bioassay clearly demonstrates this result, where 100% of mice that were inoculated with homogenised tissues from vaccinated/challenged pigs survived, compared to the survival of only 51% of mice, which received homogenised tissues from non-vaccinated/oocyst challenged animals. In addition, porcine tissues from pigs challenged with either oocysts or bradyzoites did not show a significant difference in mouse survival following bioassay of these tissues. Challenge with either stage of the parasite (oocysts or bradyzoites) showed a preference to form tissue cysts in brains and highly vascular muscles (tongue, diaphragm, heart or masseter) of pigs. The findings, comparing mouse bioassay with molecular detection of parasite DNA from homogenised porcine tissue (prior to inoculation into mice), showed similar levels of detection. However, mouse bioassay was more sensitive and also provides evidence of parasite viability. In conclusion, this research not only provides current figures for prevalence and genotypes of T. gondii in both wildlife and humans in Great Britain, it also successfully answers the question as to whether live vaccination of pigs with the S48 strain can reduce the tissue cyst burden. These promising results show the potential of a vaccine against T. gondii in producing safer pork for human consumption. Although the mouse bioassay still remains the most sensitive method for the detection and viability assessment of tissue cysts, further research should be carried out in this area, perhaps incorporating a technique such as magnetic capture qPCR, to enable an effective in vitro technique to be developed.

Como respuesta al cambio climático antropógeno, uno de los mayores problemas que enfrenta el mundo actual, el Protocolo de Kyoto determina un marco de compromisos de reducción o limitación de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) a los países desarrollados, los cuales deben cumplirse mediante la aplicación de medidas nacionales. Sin embargo, el mismo Protocolo facilita el cumplimiento costo efectivo de una parte de dichos compromisos más allá de sus fronteras a través de los denominados “mecanismos de flexibilidad”. Uno de estos mecanismos es el mecanismo para un desarrollo limpio (MDL) que permite a los países desarrollados la financiación de proyectos de mitigación de emisiones de GEI en países en desarrollo. Mientras los países desarrollados obtienen reducciones certificadas de emisiones (RCE) por sus inversiones, los países en desarrollo se benefician de inversiones y transferencia de tecnología. Así el MDL tiene como objetivos: contribuir con la mitigación del cambio climático y promover el desarrollo sostenible de países en desarrollo. A pesar de haber contribuido con la mitigación del cambio climático, la cuestión en torno a si el mecanismo contribuye al desarrollo sostenible ha aumentado en los últimos años. En este sentido, la presente tesis doctoral tiene por objetivo el análisis del MDL desde su formalidad hasta su operatividad a efectos de valorar y determinar el logro simultáneo de sus objetivos, especialmente la contribución a la promoción del desarrollo sostenible de los países en desarrollo. Así, la tesis proporciona un análisis exhaustivo de la funcionalidad y operatividad del MDL, complementado por una visión práctica de la implementación del mecanismo y su impacto sobre la sostenibilidad. / In response to anthropogenic climate change, which is considered one of the biggest issues facing the world today, the Kyoto Protocol defines a framework of commitments to reduce or limit greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by developed countries, which should be accomplished by applying national measures. However, the same Protocol facilitates a cost-effective fulfillment of a part of these commitments beyond its borders through the so-called "flexible mechanisms". One of these mechanisms is the clean development mechanism (CDM) that allows developed countries to finance GHG mitigation projects in developing countries. While developed countries receive certified emission reductions credits (CER) for their investments, developing countries benefit from investment and technology transfer. Thus the CDM aims to: contribute to the mitigation of climate change and promote sustainable development in developing countries. Despite having contributed to climate change mitigation, the question of whether the mechanism truly contributes to sustainable development has raised over the years. In this sense, this thesis aims at analyzing the CDM from its formality to its operation in order to assess and determine the simultaneous achievement of its objectives, especially the contribution to the promotion of sustainable development in developing countries. Thus, this thesis provides a comprehensive analysis of the functionality and operation of the CDM, supplemented by a practical overview of the implementation of the mechanism and its impact on sustainability.

El texto completo de este trabajo no está disponible en el Repositorio Académico UPC por restricciones de la casa editorial donde ha sido publicado. / OBJECTIVE: An estimated 20-30% of patients with primary Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) develop recurrent CDI (rCDI) within 2 weeks of completion of therapy. While the actual mechanism of recurrence remains unknown, a variety of risk factors have been suggested and studied. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate current evidence on the risk factors for rCDI. DESIGN: We searched MEDLINE and 5 other databases for subject headings and text related to rCDI. All studies investigating risk factors of rCDI in a multivariate model were eligible. Information on study design, patient population, and assessed risk factors were collected. Data were combined using a random-effects model and pooled relative risk ratios (RRs) were calculated. RESULTS: A total of 33 studies (n=18,530) met the inclusion criteria. The most frequent independent risk factors associated with rCDI were age≥65 years (risk ratio [RR], 1.63; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.24-2.14; P=.0005), additional antibiotics during follow-up (RR, 1.76; 95% CI, 1.52-2.05; P<.00001), use of proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) (RR, 1.58; 95% CI, 1.13-2.21; P=.008), and renal insufficiency (RR, 1.59; 95% CI, 1.14-2.23; P=.007). The risk was also greater in patients previously on fluoroquinolones (RR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.28-1.57; P<.00001). CONCLUSIONS: Multiple risk factors are associated with the development of rCDI. Identification of modifiable risk factors and judicious use of antibiotics and PPI can play an important role in the prevention of rCDI.

PhD - Science / The study of the human metatarsals reveals frequent morphological variations from the typical descriptions. Pathologies of these bones in contemporary humans are common, and it has been suggested that some of these may be associated with some of these variants. Within this context, it was not clear to what extent footwear and other environmental factors such as modern substrates have influenced metatarsal morphology. This study essentially consists of three parts. First a preliminary morphometric study of the first, second and fifth metatarsals, to demonstrate the broad patterns of discrimination between selected hominoidea, namely humans, gorillas, chimpanzees and orangutans. In addition, the SKX 5017 first metatarsal fossil thought to be of Paranthropus robustus was included. Second, a primary morphometric investigation into the patterns of morphological discrimination in the five metatarsals of selected humans from South Africa, namely Sotho, Zulu, European and pre-pastoral subgroups. The contemporary human subgroups are associated with modern lifestyles and the pre-pastoral individuals represent habitually unshod forager societies from the western and southern Cape, dated 9750 - 2000 B.P. Third, a non-metric investigation into the patterns of variation in epigenetic and pathological variants of the metatarsus of the four human subgroups. A suite of existing metrical data was utilized for the preliminary hominoid study, and a suite of metrical and non-metrical data was collected for the primary human study from appropriate skeletal collections. Univariate analysis of these iv samples revealed important, though simplistic trends in morphology. Subsequent multivariate analyses utilizing principal components and canonical variates analysis were undertaken. Multivariate analysis of the hominoid samples revealed large scale variation between the species. This discrimination was on the basis of genetics, locomotor function and geography. Multivariate analysis of the human metrical data revealed very subtle morphological discrimination within and between the subgroups. Most of this discrimination appears to be genetic, followed by a functional or life-style based discrimination suggesting a broad discrimination between recent humans and the habitually unshod pre-pastoral subgroup. The epigenetic traits reveal considerable variation within groups, with similar trends between them. All subgroups have an appreciable number of identifiable pathological changes, with the recent human subgroups having the most and the prepastoral subgroup the least. In all subgroups, the hallucal metatarsal displays by far the greatest frequency in osseous modification. The main conclusions of this study are: 1.) The general patterns of morphological discrimination between the metatarsals of the human subgroups are very subtle. The non-metric traits are very variable, but do not discriminate between any of the subgroups. 2.) Both recent and ancient human groups present with similar patterns of pathological changes, but the frequency is different, these changes are to a great extent influenced by lifestyle. Regardless of temporal context, no clear correlation between morphological variation and pathological changes could be found.

IT2018

MSc (Med), Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand / Bartonella is a genus of fastidious bacteria responsible for a wide range of both symptomatic and asymptomatic infections. Bartonellae are often considered obligate pathogens where infection is concurrent with immunological suppression of the host. The objectives of this study were: to determine the prevalence of Bartonella infections in HIV-positive patients presenting for treatment at a Gauteng HIV-clinic, to determine the extent of bartonellae affecting the healthy population, to determine the seroprevalence of Bartonella henselae and Bartonella quintana antibodies in HIV-negative antenatal patient sera taken from various maternity units in Gauteng public hospitals, and to investigate cats, dogs, and rodents in Johannesburg for carriage of bartonellae. A total of 382 HIV-positive patients attending the HIV clinic and 42 clinically healthy volunteers agreed to participate. Three-hundred and forty-two residual sera from the national antenatal survey were selected and tested for IgG and IgM antibodies against Bartonella. There were 179 dogs, 98 cats and 124 rodents enrolled in this study. The seroprevalence for Bartonella in humans was carried out using IgG and IgM commercially available kits. HIV-positive patients were found to have 32% IgG and 14% IgM seroprevalence, whereas the healthy volunteers had a lower IgG (19%) and higher IgM seroprevalence than the HIV-positive counterparts. All blood samples were cultured, but only the cat and rodent specimens yielded isolates. These were sequenced for species identification. The cat isolates were 99 and 100% similar to B. henselae URBHLIE 9 previously isolated from a patient with endocarditis, and the rat isolates were 98 – 99% similar to either RN24BJ (candidus ‘B. thailandensis’) or RN28BJ, previously isolated from rodents in China. The PCR prevalences were: 22.5% in HIV-positive patients; 9.5% in clinically healthy volunteers; 23.5% in cats; 9% in dogs; and 25% in rodents. Findings of this study have important implications for HIV-positive patients

Finally, the research of classifying and identifying individuals through their walking patterns is introduced. Alive biometrical features in dynamic human gait are adopted in the intelligent shoe system. Since gait data are dynamic, non-linear, stochastic, time-varying, noisy and multi-channel, we must select a modeling framework capable of dealing with these expected complexities in the data. Using the proposed machine learning methods, support vector machine (SVM) and hidden Markov models (HMMs), we build up probabilistic models that take the information of human walking patterns into account, and compare the overall similarity among human walking patterns of several wearers. / In this thesis, we will build intelligent shoes under the framework for capturing and analyzing dynamic human gait. Existing MEMS technology makes it possible to integrate all the sensors and circuits inside a small module. In designing our intelligent shoe system, we require the following key characteristics in our system: (1) It should be convenient to wear and socially acceptable. Thus, the sensors and electronic hardware installed should not substantially change the weight and weight balance of a typical shoe, lest it alters how an individual normally walks. (2) We want to analyze a user's motion in real-time through a wireless interface to a remote laptop or other computer; we will also incorporate on-shoe data logging hardware for off-line analysis. (3) Sensors that monitor gait motion conditions may need to be attached to the insoles, in closer proximity to the foot of users. In order to investigate the problem of capturing power parasitically from normal human-body-motion for use in personal electronics applications, we also plan to develop an electromechanical generator embedded within the shoe for parasitic power collection from heel strike. / Next, we can encode specific motions to control external devices through a wireless interface. This same system architecture that allows us to classify broad categories of motion also allows the intelligent shoe to act as a programmable, low-data rate control interface. We apply the system to several successful tasks based on this platform, especially the Shoe-Mouse. By using this interface, we can operate a device with our feet. / Then, we present potential use of machine learning techniques, in particular support vector machine (SVM), and the intelligent shoe platform to detect discrete stages in the cyclic motion of dynamic human gait, and construct an identifier of five discrete events that occur in a cyclic process for precise control of functional electrical stimulation (FES). With the information of when the legs are in each phase of a gait, the timing of specific gait phase can be assessed. / Huang, Bufu. / "September 2007." / Adviser: Yangsheng Xu. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 69-08, Section: B, page: 4931. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 122-131). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Electronic reproduction. [Ann Arbor, MI] : ProQuest Information and Learning, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / School code: 1307.

The demand for functional foods is on the rise. These are food products that, besides providing energy and nutrients for life, provide additional health benefits. Xylitol, a five-carbon sugar alcohol, is a possible functional food, as well as a sugar replacement. The cost of xylitol has led manufacturers to add inulin, a nondigestible oligosaccharide, as an extender. Both xylitol and inulin have been suggested to provide added health benefits beyond being a reduced calorie replacement for sugar. We tested their impact on several human health parameters (fecal weight, fecal pH, fecal% Ill moisture, blood lipids, blood glucose, and fecal micro flora) with two age groups, "older" (62.3 ± 9.63 y, n= 17) and "younger" (23.3 ± 2.02 y, n= 18). Participants were given two different treatments: A, 7.5 g xylitol and B, 7.5 g of xylitol in combination with 7.5 g of inulin. Treatment schedules were as follows: 2 weeks with one treatment, followed by a 2-week washout period, and 2 weeks with the treatment they had not previously taken. Comparisons were then made between each treatment and the washout period. Due to the low number of participants, we were unable to obtain substantial significance on most observations, but important trends were detected. Treatment with xylitol by itself caused a decrease in stool mass compared to washout (control) values, while the addition of inulin reversed the decrease. This effect is important, as an increased stool mass is associated with a healthy gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Xylitol by itself or with added inulin provided for a more acidic colonic environment, which aids in mineral absorption and inhibition of pathogenic microbes. Both treatments were also noted to cause an increase the frequency of bowel movements compared to washout. As sugar replacements, it was observed that both treatments were associated with a decreased post-prandial blood sugar level from washout, indicating a benefit in blood glucose control. As for blood lipid values, xylitol caused a decrease, compared to washout, in triglycerides and VLDL levels while increasing HDL levels. However, the addition of inulin increased, from washout, the younger age group's serum triglycerides, but did not change xylitol 's effects on VLDL and HDL levels of either age group. In the fecal micro flora, it was seen that taking the xylitol treatment caused a decrease, from washout, in amounts of all microbes studied, while the addition of inulin increased the fecal Lactobacilli counts of the older age group. Interestingly, stool qualities responded differently by age. Both treatments made the older population's stool more firm, while the same treatments made the younger population's stool more loose. Despite the added benefits, there was an increase in flatulence-small with the xylitol treatment, but nearly a three-fold increase with the addition of inulin. In conclusion, xylitol alone or with the addition of inulin can be labeled as a functional food

<p><strong>Background</strong> Subarachnoid hemorrhage is a condition with high rates of mortality and morbidity. The diagnosis requires an urgent cerebral computed tomography scan and also a lumbar puncture if the scan fails to demonstrate intracranial blood. In Sweden the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is analyzed by spectrophotometric scanning for the presence of hemoglobin and bilirubin. The aim of the study was to develop a quantitative diazo reagent based analysis of cerebrospinal fluid bilirubin as a replacement for spectrophotometric scanning.</p><p><strong>Methods</strong> The CSF bilirubin assay on an Architect C8000 chemistry analyzer was compared with spectrophotometry using patient samples.</p><p><strong>Results</strong> The method correlates with spectrophotometry, has a good linearity and precision.</p><p><strong>Conclusions</strong> Quantitative bilirubin measurement offers shorter turnaround times, simplifies the interpretation of the results and reduces work load in comparison with spectrophotometry.</p>