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Soil erosion is a global problem, affecting much of the world’s agricultural land. As the world’s population increases, the pressures placed upon the land resource to provide space for food production, leisure, housing and industrial facilities also increases. Thus it is vital that the land resource is as productive as possible. As soil erosion is the major cause of soil degradation globally, it is vital that methods for accurately monitoring the degree of erosion from a site, and the effectiveness of any remediation attempts are available. Reported here is the development of a novel soil erosion particle tracer, based upon a lanthanide chelate complex doped silica particle. The luminescent lanthanide chelate complexes were comprised of 2-thenoyltrifluoroacetone (TTA) and 2-pyridinol-1-oxide (2PO) coordinated with either trivalent europium or terbium ions. These complexes were then doped into silica sol-gel particles using a core shell technique. This method resulted in the synthesis of two luminescent soil tracers, targeted to two of the key eroded soil fractions; fine silt (63-250 μm) and clay (< 1.2 μm). The behaviour of the tracers was analysed within three different soils obtained from the Glensaugh research station. They retained their luminescence when mixed with soil, and could be detected at concentrations of 10 mg tracer / kg soil using a standard benchtop fluorescence spectrometer (Perkin Elmer LS55B). Scanning electron micrographs indicated that the tracer particles interacted with the soil particles, whilst soil sedimentation experiments demonstrated that the tracer particles had a similar sedimentation pattern to natural soil particles. Soil microbial respiration studies were performed for the tracers and showed that the tracers did not significantly impact the soil microbial population. Studies of the luminescence stability of the tracer in soil over time showed that the tracer could be detected in the soil for one season (approximately 3 months). A prototype rainfall simulator, designed to simulate the kinetic energy of raindrops on the surface of the soil, was developed, and used during a series of rainfall simulation experiments. These simulations were performed at two different rainfall intensities (30 and 90 mm.h-1) and both of these conditions resulted in movement of the tracer particles within the plot. This movement was both horizontal, in overland flow over the plot surface, and vertical, through the plot. The pattern of tracer movement reflected that of the soil mass moved, and as such indicated that the tracers exhibited similar transport behaviour during the erosion simulations performed. These initial simulations demonstrated that the tracers can be detected at low concentrations within the soil using standard laboratory equipment, and that they move with the eroded soil particles during simulated soil erosion experiments. As such, these tracers are excellent candidates for further study in larger scale erosion events.

[From Introduction] It has been said that, "If a nation saves its trees, the trees will save the nation." The truth of this assertion is apparent in many parts of the world today. In South Africa, fires and demands in the past for timber have led to extensive depletion of the Natural Forests. In many cases, natural revegetation has been slow to develop and deterioration of the soil has resulted. The desire to replace the tree cover and at the same time to meet an increasing internal demand for timber, has led to widespread planting of Pine and Bluegum. It is probable that more trees have now been planted than were destroyed in the past. The silviculturist however, who develops a pure stand on land which previously supported the mixed stand, should anticipate a change in soil properties as a natural accompaniment of such an undertaking. The nature of this change is the primum mobile of the present comparative study. The forest soils studied were taken in the Cape Province in the following areas:- Grahamstown; Amatola Mountains, District Alice; Witte-els-Bosch, District Humansdorp, during the course of a year. The physical and chemical properties, and the faunal composition of the soil samples were examined in relation to the different tree covers. Because of the necessity of taking large numbers of samples and thorough examination of these to arrive at a definite conclusion, the work is necessarily incomplete. It is felt however that the results obtained justify a further study of this aspect of soil biology.

The major objective of this research was to advance the state of the art in interpretation and application of results from in-situ testing of soil, in particular the Cone Penetration Test (CPT), the Self-boring Pressuremeter Test (SBPMT) and the Flat Plate Dilatometer Test (DMT). This study critically examines the equipment, field procedures and methods of test interpretation so that improvements can be made in their application to field liquefaction assessment. Improvements to in-situ test equipment and procedures are proposed. Improvements for the interpretation of CPT data in sands for evaluating relative density, friction angle and modulus are made. A method for prediction of deformation characteristics of clay from CPT data is proposed by incorporating the influence of soil stiffness. A correlation between cyclic stress ratio to cause liquefaction (10 percent double amplitude shear strain) and cone penetration resistance is proposed for sands and silty sands. The proposed CPT liquefaction correlation is substantiated using data from B.C., Japan, China and U.S.A. and appears to represent a good lower bound. The addition of continuous pore pressure measurements during cone penetration is shown to significantly improve the interpretation of the CPT. Data is also presented that clarifies the correlation between the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and the CPT. Improvements are suggested for the interpretation of SBPMT data in sands for friction angle and modulus. These improvements are applied to the assessment of liquefaction resistance using the SBPMT. New correlations are proposed for estimating the relative density and liquefaction resistance of sand using the results from DMT. A field and laboratory study is carried out to evaluate existing and proposed methods of interpretation of in-situ tests and their application to the assessment of liquefaction resistance. In general the proposed new correlations produce good results, although further field verification is required. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Civil Engineering, Department of / Graduate

The relationship between plants and rhizosphere bacteria collected from a 45 year old permanent pasture was investigated. Several methods of strain identification within Rhizobium trifolii were evaluated. Separation of bacterial isolates based on differences in intrinsic antibiotic resistance was not appropriate because strains developed hybrid resistance patterns when grown in a common broth. Serological analyses of bacterial antigens using polyclonal antiserum yielded two reliable methods for identifying R. trifolii isolates. Agglutination and immunofluorescence procedures were not useful in distinguishing these strains but immunodiffusion and the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were highly suitable. Adaptation of the ELISA allowed isolates to be identified directly from individual root nodules without first subculturing the bacteria. A strain of Bacillus polymyxa isolated from the same pasture was shown to stimulate growth of crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum L.) and white clover (Trifolium repens L.). The primary manifestation of the effect was increased root weight (P < 0.05), but shoot responses were also observed. Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) generally reacted negatively to inoculation with this bacterium. Further stimulation of growth was noted when ramets of the white clover genotype homologous to (sharing a common origin) B. polymyxa were inoculated in pure stands (P < 0.05). Clones of the homologous perennial ryegrass genotype also showed a yield increase from slightly below control levels to slightly above them when tested in a similar manner. Detailed analysis of the crested wheatgrass response to inoculation revealed that bacterial production of indole acetic acid was the most likely cause of the growth stimulation. Other bacterial characteristics such as the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen or to solubilize organic phosphorus were concluded to be unrelated to the growth response. Co-adaptive compatibility between genotypes of L. perenne and T. repens was not apparent when the effect of R. trifolii was ignored. However, when clones of pasture plants that had been neighbours in the field were inoculated with R. trifolii isolated from root nodules of the "parental" clover genotype, biotic specialization between the pasture plants became evident. The magnitude of the effect, which was characterized by superior white clover yields (P < 0.05), could be largely accounted for by the presence of the adapted L. perenne/R. trifolii combinations, regardless of the white clover genotype. Since T. repens was the dominant component in the species mixture, these trends were also apparent when total forage biomass was analyzed (P < 0.05). However, ecological combining ability was found to be lowest in these associations (P < 0.05). Similar experimentation with isolates of B. polymyxa (or B. polymyxa-like organisms) was performed. Again the grass/bacteria combination was shown to be influential in the growth response as the presence of homologous L. perenne/B. polymyxa combinations resulted in superior white clover and perennial ryegrass performance (P < 0.05). When T. repens was inoculated with a mixture of R. trifolii strains, unrelated isolates formed more root nodules than did homologous ones (P < 0.05). The presence of perennial ryegrass did not mitigate this effect. However, when homologous R. trifolii was administered as a single strain inoculum, yield advantages in white clover were observed (P < 0.05). If B. pol ymyxa was present, homologous strains of R. trifolii tended to form most of the root nodules regardless of the T. repens or L. perenne genotypes. The significance of the yield advantages observed in various two and three-way plant/microbe genotype combinations is discussed with respect to above ground plant performance. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

Accelerated erosion is a major environmental, social and economical threat in South Africa. It is estimated that in excess of 400 million tones of soil is lost every year in South Africa, with much of this erosion being attributed to improper land management and little or no erosion control methods. This study was aimed to determine the efficiency of soil erosion structures, which were constructed in the Mabula Private Game Reserve (Limpopo Province), in reducing the amount of sediment eroded at the sites as well as to determine the amounts of sediments deposited due to their presence. Factors such as rainfall, slope, soil type and particle size were measured to determine their influence on sediment erosion and the ultimate deposition of this sediment. The geology of the area is characterised by Waterberg Sandstones and igneous intrusions of mostly granite. Rainfall in the area occurs between the October and April, with an average of 550 – 750 mm. The temperatures range from 18°C - 32°C during the summer months and 4°C to 22°C in the winter months. The study area falls within the Sour Bushveld and the Sourish Mixed Bushveld, according to the Acocks classification. These veld types are characterised by open an open savanna of tall trees and shrubs. Five sites affected by soil erosion were selected and at each site structures were constructed, the size and number of structures at each site was dependant on the extent of the sites area. The structures are made from a shade net product known as T65, a shade cloth developed by Alnet, which has not been UV treated allowing it to disintegrate in the open atmosphere after 2-3 years. Soil measurements and samples were taken before the rainfall season to establish baseline data to compare the results with once the filed work has been concluded. Thereafter samples and measurements were taken every month during the rainfall season, which extended from October 2004 to April 2005. In conjunction with the measurements taken at each structure the slope of each site was determined and the profiles of the sediment deposited at the structures after the rainfall season were studied. From the measurements it was clear that as the rainfall increased so the amount of sediment being deposited at the structures increased. There were structures that experienced more iii sediment deposition than others and theses differences could be attributed to factors such as parent material, soil texture, slope angle and soil type. Due to the deposition of sediment and the reduction in surface flow caused by the structures, vegetation established itself and began to flourish in the newly deposited soil. Through the establishment of vegetation at the sites an element of success was achieved. With a total of 2 101 mm of sediment being deposited at the structures and the establishment of vegetation in areas where there was none previously it can be concluded that the soil erosion structures are successfully curbing soil erosion in Mabula Private Game Reserve. / Professor J.T. Harmse

M.Tech. / There is a general lack of understanding of the laboratory compaction test based on the vibrating hammer method. The impact method of testing soil in the laboratory is conservatively used by engineers for design and construction control purposes even when the specified mode of compaction on site is vibratory. Furthermore, the effects of vibratory compaction are not fully understood, and hence this mode of compaction in the field has not always been effectively utilized. The objective of this research project was to determine whether the vibrating hammer method could be used in the laboratory for design and control purposes, through an investigation of its operating characteristics, and a comparison of its effectiveness against that of the impact method, following a study of the compaction properties of a range of different soils used in road and embankment construction. The results of the study showed that the vibrating hammer can be used in place of impact in the laboratory for non-cohesive soils and gravels. In one instance, vibratory compaction produced maximum dry densities for a decomposed granite which were almost 5 % higher than that for impact compaction. Cohesive soils reached maximum compaction at moisture contents which were 7 % wetter under the vibratory mode as opposed to those for impact, but at lower densities. This showed that field densities under vibratory compaction would be difficult to achieve when the laboratory control method was based on impact. The research showed that electrical power input to the vibrating hammer must be carefully regulated in order to maintain specified standards which are based on a fixed frequency. Further study based on operation at different frequencies would be required to determine whether the vibrating hammer would be suitable for cohesive soils having natural frequencies lower than the current standard specified.

Thesis (M.Sc. Agriculture (Soil Science)) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / Woody plant encroachment results in the degradation of grasslands. It is defined here as the increase in density, cover and biomass of woody plants into formerly open grasslands, reducing grassland productivity. Globally, many arid and semi-arid savanna grasslands are affected by this land cover transformation which changes the vegetation structure by altering the ratio of woody plants relative to grass species and influences soil hydrology. In the existing literature there is limited information on the effects of woody plant encroachment on soil physical and hydrological properties, especially in savanna grasslands. This study quantified and compared the soil physical and hydrological properties in the topsoil and subsoil of open and woody plant encroached grassland sites located on two contrasting soil forms, namely Bainsvlei and Rensburg. To achieve this objective, the two soils were sampled at various depth intervals from dug soil profiles at both sites at Towoomba Research Station in Bela Bela, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Soil physical properties including bulk density, porosity and aggregate stability as well as hydrological properties (water retention and hydraulic conductivity) were determined from collected samples. Compared to open grassland, soil bulk density was 11% and 10% greater in the topsoil and subsoil, while porosity was respectively 6% and 9% lower in the topsoil and subsoil of woody plant encroached grassland for Rensburg soils. In Bainsvlei soil, there was a minimal increase and decrease in the soil bulk density and porosity, respectively. Soil aggregate stability increased by 38% in the subsoil of woody plant encroached grasslands in Rensburg soil, due to increasing clay content with depth. In Bainsvlei soil, the soil aggregate stability was 9% and 13% lower in the topsoil and subsoil of the woody plant encroached grasslands compared to open grassland. Furthermore, the results revealed that in both soils, there was lower soil water retention and hydraulic conductivity in the topsoil and subsoil layers of woody plant encroached grassland than in open grasslands. There were no significant differences observed for soil hydraulic conductivity in the Bainsvlei and Rensburg topsoil. The subsoil hydraulic conductivity decreased by 24% in Bainsvlei and 44% in Rensburg soils in the woody plant encroached grassland. The soil water retention (SWR) decreased with an increase in woody plants. Specifically, there was 25% and 42% decrease in SWR with woody plant encroachment in the topsoil and subsoil of Bainsvlei soil, respectively. The same trend was observed in the Rensburg soils with 50% and 19% decrease in SWR in the topsoil and subsoil, respectively. Overall, the results revealed that soil type and depth influenced soil physical and hydrological properties in the studied woody plant encroached savanna grassland. As such, interventions aimed at controlling woody plant encroachment need to factor in soil type and depth in the development of management practices tailored to improve the soil hydrology of savanna grasslands

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, 2017 / The effect of internal erosion on the mechanical behaviour of soils was investigated experimentally, using sodium chloride grains as an analogue for erodible soil grains. With this technique, the loss of controlled quantities of finer particles could be simulated under more realistic hydro-mechanical conditions than in previous research, but within practical experimental time scales. Two experimental programs were undertaken. The first looked at general changes in volume and shear strength using a large diameter oedometer adapted to perform a punch test following salt dissolution. The second program investigated particular changes in volume and shear strength following salt dissolution using an adapted direct shear box Previous studies have shown shear strength reductions following the loss of finer particles representing as little as 5 % of the total mass of the original soil. Findings here show shear strength can be largely unaffected if the erodible finer fraction (F) makes up less than a transition value (Ft) of approximately 10 – 15 % by mass of the original soil. This threshold represents F above which the coarser fabric is looser than at its minimum void ratio. As F increases further, finer particles increasingly hinder the coarser particles from achieving their densest packing, such that the coarser fabric remaining after finer particle loss is in a looser state than the original fabric, the remaining fabric reaching its maximum void ratio at a critical finer fraction (Fc) of approximately 25 – 35 %. For F < Fc, finer particle loss results in limited collapse of the coarser fabric and it was found that the state of this initial coarser fabric determines the shear behaviour of the soil following the loss of finer particles. The shear behaviour of initially dense specimens with F < Ft remained similar to that of a dense soil following finer particle loss, whereas shear behaviour of initially dense specimens with Ft < F < Fc approached that of a loose soil as F increased. Soils with higher internal filter ratios (D15c/D85f) were found to have higher values of Ft and Fc. Soils with F > Fc, settled and weakened significantly following finer particle loss, reflecting the load-bearing role finer particles play in this case. This load bearing nature of the finer particles in soils with F > Fc decreases the risk of internal erosion. / CK2018

Potassium is one of the essential plant nutrient elements. It is used by plants in the synthesis and distribution of carbohydrates (25)2 and in the formation of proteins and oils. Potassium also seems to exert many of its effects by influencing enzymatic activity in cells. Potassium occurs as the monovalent cation on plant cells and undoubtedly exerts important effects upon such phnomona as the permiability of the cytoplasmic membranes and hydration of protoplasma. Plants assimilate potassium either from the soil solution or directly from the exchange complex.