Les milieux humides littoraux sont des systèmes écologiques complexes qui résultent des interactions entre des processus hydrologiques, géomorphologiques et biologiques. Ils sont généralement très convoités pour leurs intérêts tant écologiques qu’économiques. Plusieurs approches ont été employées pour mieux comprendre leurs évolutions spatiotemporelles en fonction de perturbations aussi bien naturelles qu’anthropiques qu’ils subissent. Les outils de la télédétection et des potentialités des Systèmes d’Informations Géographiques (SIG) ont été largement développés. Ainsi dans cette étude, on propose une approche cartographique de deux milieux humides, basée sur la classification orientée-objet des photographies aériennes et les images satellitaires multidates et multi-résolutions et utilisant un modèle numérique de terrain (MNT) topo-bathymétrique intégré pour étudier ces perturbations. Cette approche a permis d’étudier l’évolution de deux milieux humides situés dans deux contextes climatiques et géographiques différents qui sont l’estuaire de la Rance situé à l’ouest de la France dans un contexte tempéré océanique et ayant subi la construction d’un barrage marémoteur (aménagement hydraulique majeur) en 1966. Le deuxième milieu est le lac de l’Ichkeul situé au nord de la Tunisie, un des milieux humides les plus importants de la méditerranée qui est sujet à des aménagements hydrauliques continus et fortement dépendant des perturbations climatiques. Pour l’exemple de l’estuaire de la Rance, l’étude des évolutions géomorphologiques a été effectuée en utilisant des comparaisons du MNT intégré réalisé dans le cadre de cette étude à partir de données bathymétriques et topographiques acquises avant la construction du barrage marémoteur avec des données bathymétriques acquises en 1982 puis en 1998. On a par exemple confirmé localement les évolutions de la topo-bathymétrie. On révèle la déviation du chenal principal, ainsi que l’érosion des zones situées à l’aval à proximité du fort courant ou bien au contraire leur sédimentation dans les zones protégées de l’action des courants. L’étude de l’évolution de la végétation du schorre (herbus) a été effectuée par deux méthodes : une cartographie surfacique multidate de la végétation à partir des photographies aériennes acquises en 1953, 1961, 1966, 1978, 1982, 1996 et une orthophotographie aérienne acquise en 2002 et une cartographie de la végétation du schorre faite en exploitant les capacités de segmentation des images à haute- résolution spatiale offertes par la méthode de classification orientée-objet et le modèle topobathymétrique intégré. Cette étude comparative a montré que la surface globale du schorre a augmenté suite à la mise en place du barrage marémoteur, une tendance à l’équilibre des surfaces est observée depuis 1978. Un nouvel équilibre global s’est instauré dans l’estuaire douze ans après la construction du barrage marémoteur. Dans le cas de l’étude du milieu humide du lac Ichkeul, correspondant au deuxième exemple étudié ici, la méthode de classification orientée-objet a été utilisée pour la cartographie de l’évolution de la végétation en utilisant des images satellitaires multisources, multi-résolutions et multidates (MSS-Landsat (1972), TM-Landsat (1987), ETM+ Landsat (2001) and Aster-Terra (2007)) et le MNT topobathymétrique intégré. Cette méthode a permis d’identifier les principales communautés végétatives caractéristiques des marais de l’Ichkeul, à savoir la communauté à base de Sarcocornia fruticosa, la communauté à base d’Hordeum Marinum, la communauté à base de Visnaga Daucoides et la communauté à base de Bolboschoenus. L’évolution morphologique du lac est étudiée en comparant le MNT topo-bathymétrique intégré réalisé à partir de données topographiques et bathymétriques acquises en 2003 avec des données bathymétriques acquises en 1967, 1983, 1986 et 1993. Elle fait apparaître le déplacement des zones d’accrétion et de sédimentation dans le lac suite aux aménagements hydrauliques ainsi on relève : (1) une érosion dans la partie est du lac entre 1967 et 1982 (2) un engraissement aux alentours de l’écluse entre 1982 et 1986 et (3) un déplacement des zones les plus profondes vers le sud-ouest du lac et un comblement de la partie du lac située au pied (nord-est) du Djebel Ichkeul depuis 1993. Cette étude a montré que les modifications drastiques des apports d’eau et les perturbations climatiques constituent les principales causes des altérations physiques du milieu humide de l’Ichkeul. Le retour à une dynamique naturelle est loin d’être atteint et dépend fortement des interventions humaines et des facteurs climatiques. La méthode utilisée ici a permis d’étudier deux milieux humides différents et leurs évolutions en se basant sur le degré de complexité de chacun d’eux ainsi que sur le type de la perturbation qu’ils subissent, permettant ainsi de différencier les tendances d’évolution actuelles (stabilité ou évolution) de chaque milieu. L’étude du contexte géomorphologique associant (1) les évolutions de la végétation des milieux humides, et (2) l’exploitation de la classification orientée-objet, multidates et multi-résolutions, à partir d’une approche intégrée de télédétection utilisant les SIG présente par conséquent un fort potentiel pour proposer et optimiser les modes de gestion adaptés aux objectifs de préservation des zones humides et de développement durable en général / Coastal wetlands are an important component of the natural environment of the coastal zone. Wetlands are affected by hydrologic and geomorphic controls that must be taken into consideration when attempting to understand wetland responses to disturbance, provide information for better wetland management, or aid in the restoration of lost habitat. The functioning of coastal wetlands is a result of complex linking of distinct biological, geomorphologic and human factors interacting in varying scales. Natural water circulation and water quality can altered the natural behaviours of that ecosystem. Remote sensing techniques (pixel based classification methods) and geographic information system are well used herein in monitoring coastal wetlands areas. But they are confronted to many difficulties such as combing together both onshore and offshore data and process and discriminate wetlands from uplands areas. The overall goal of our study is to develop improved methods for wetland monitoring and management in two cases studies those are located in different areas and climate zones, which are : - The Rance estuary in Western France is subject to many morphologic and biological modifications due to the management of the Rance tidal power station since 1966. The construction had required isolating completely open sea from the Rance estuary for more three years. Since that time, some environmental changes took place in the Rance estuary area, such as modifications and disappearance of sandbanks in some areas, leading to a new equilibrium since 1978. - The Ichkeul Lake in the North of Tunisia is one of the most important wetlands in the Mediterranean region. However, the decreasing of water discharge into the lake caused by the damming of three of the six major rivers feeding the lake coincided with severe drought periods, restricting supplies of fresh water, and modifying saltmarsh vegetation communities and other significant wetland degradation. Furthermore, one specific objective of our work is to investigate the capabilities of the object oriented classification methods combined to integrated topographic-bathymetric digital terrain model in those areas. In the case study of the Rance estuary morphological evolution after the settlement of the tidal power station is done by the comparison of the integrated Topographic-Bathymetric Digital Terrain Model (DTM), combining the 1953 bathymetric data, and 1957 topographic ones, with bathymetric profiles acquired in 1982 and 1998. It shows that increase of topography corresponding to accretion is frequently observed in coves characterised by low current energy. In contrast, the places exposed to high currents present generally strong eroded features, which decrease and erode the topography. The meandering of channels has also observed through time. The use of object-oriented classification of aerial photographs, acquired between 1953 and 2002 and the integrated DTM of salt marshes area in the Rance estuary, enhanced their surface regression from 1953 to 1978. It shows their stability since, due to hydrologic modifications induced in the Rance estuary after the tidal power plant management such us the change of tidal range and the period of slack water. In the case study of the Ichkeul, the application of object-oriented classification approach to identify Ichkeul wetland vegetation is based on the following multi-spectral imagery: the MSSLandsat (1972), TM-Landsat (1987), ETM+ Landsat (2001) and Aster-Terra (2007) acquired in growth period of vegetation. Results show the declining of vegetation communities in Ichkeul wetlands exposed to alternative fresh and salt-water diversion. Sarcocornia fruticosa, communities, Hordeum communities are the largest units in the study area. The Bolboschoenus communities is absent in the 1987 and 2001 vegetation maps. This is conformed by previews studies witch are showing that due to dry periods and rivers damming the Bolboschoenus disappeared for many years. The monitoring the lake Ichkuel sedimentation process was done by comparison of five sets of bathymetric data taken in 1967, 1983, 1986, 1993 and 2003. It shows the alteration of sedimentation process in the Ichkeul Lake as behaviour of the coastal zone after the settlement of dams. To conclude, owing to difference of climatic and hydrodynamic characteristics the responses of coastal wetland to natural and human will vary according to difference of their geomorphology and ecology. The Rance estuary seams to have new ecology balance ten years after the settlement of the tidal power station. However, the Ichkeul Lake is still affected by anthropogenic and climatic factors. Therefore, the used methodology provides detailed information on wetland vegetation and adjacent land-use/land-cover types in schorre wetland areas in the cases of the Rance estuary, and the Ichkeul marches areas. This technique is combining both integrated DTM and remote sensing data that is a useful tool for wetland vegetation monitoring and for resolve some major classification confusions that occur in such wetland areas

Bedrock islands add variation to the estuarine system that results in deviations from typical unconfined estuarine sediment transport patterns. Limited literature exists regarding the dynamics of seabed morphology, delta formation, sediment divergence patterns, and sedimentary facies classifications of non-fjordic bedrock confined systems. Such knowledge is critical to address coastal management concerns adequately. This research presents insights from the Skeena Estuary, a macrotidal estuary in northwestern Canada with a high fluvial sediment input (21.2-25.5 Mtyr-1). Descriptions on sub-environments, stratification, and sediment accumulation within the Skeena Estuary utilize HydroTrend model outputs of riverine sediment and discharge, Natural Resources Canada radiocarbon-dated sediment cores and grain size samples, and acoustic Doppler current profiler and conductivity-temperature-depth measurements from three field campaigns. Research findings delineate a fragmented delta structure with elongated mudflats and select areas of slope instability. Variations from well-mixed water circulation to lateral stratification, govern the slack tide flow transition and sediment transport pathways within seaward and landward passages of the estuary. Fostering a comprehensive understanding of bedrock confined estuary and delta systems has implications for the assessment of coastal management strategies, the productivity of ecological habitats, and the impacts of climate change within coastal areas. / Graduate

Tesis por compendio / [ES] Los ecosistemas riparios presentan una gran variabilidad, desde un punto de vista geomorfológico como hidrológico y ecológico, incluyendo las complejas interacciones que la morfología y la vegetación de ribera puede presentar. La vegetación se presenta como un factor físico muy influyente en los sistemas fluviales, con una relación directa en los procesos geomorfológicos que tienen lugar en los corredores fluviales. La detección, monitoreo y evaluación de los procesos que se desarrollan en el espacio ripario son clave a la hora de poder entender las funciones ecológicas y el desarrollo de dichos hábitats, y por tanto para tomar decisiones para su conservación y restauración. Según la distribución de especies y los rasgos de las plantas, las comunidades vegetales y su dinámica presentan distintas características en el ecosistema ripario, a las cuales los métodos de detección y monitoreo deben adaptarse. Los constantes cambios que sufren estos espacios a lo largo del tiempo se deben en gran parte a procesos físicos relacionados con las dinámicas de erosión y sedimentación, las variaciones de la trayectoria del cauce, variaciones en la distribución de especies y vegetación en el bosque de ribera, etc., pero también se deben al impacto antropogénico, que puede llegar a generar grandes desajustes en la dinámica ecológica de los ecosistemas en cuestión. Debido a las interacciones de diversos procesos y alteraciones antropogénicas, y las complejas dinámicas espacio-temporales, resulta necesario continuar desarrollando metodologías teóricas y prácticas para la monitorización y caracterización de estos ecosistemas. La teledetección, incluyendo el uso de drones, se presenta como una herramienta muy interesante y óptima para el mapeo y recogida de información en estos espacios naturales. Los beneficios que demuestran las aeronaves no tripuladas -UAV- incluyen las mejoras en la resolución espacial y temporal de los datos capturados, así como la cartografía de áreas extensas en poco tiempo, lo que los convierte en instrumentos clave en tareas de gestión y conservación de los espacios riparios. La necesidad de estudiar la dinámica geomorfológica que se produce en los cauces fluviales ha sido la principal motivación en los estudios que se presentan en esta tesis doctoral. Los capítulos 2 y 3 se basan en técnicas de captura de datos con láser escáner terrestre (TLS) y en el modelado de los datos obtenidos en vuelos fotogramétricos de UAV. Con ellos se han caracterizado los procesos que tienen lugar en una cierta área de estudio, un cauce efímero del sureste de la Península Ibérica, la Rambla de la Azohía (Murcia). Estos estudios también han permitido comparar el ajuste y precisión de los datos capturados a partir de dos técnicas distintas. Además, el interés en caracterizar los cauces fluviales con un flujo permanente ha motivado el estudio de la topografía sumergida en un tramo de río, segmentado por tipos de mesohábitat. Así pues, el capítulo 4 presenta un algoritmo y una herramienta de corrección para el efecto de la refracción en un tramo del rio Palancia (Castellón), para llevar a cabo la correcta representación de la morfología del lecho sumergido. A partir de la metodología planteada y el algoritmo desarrollado, es posible minimizar los efectos de distorsión debidos a la presencia del agua, para obtener la reconstrucción tridimensional del lecho a partir de imágenes tomadas con UAV. La construcción del modelo 3D se llevó a cabo mediante la técnica de Structure from Motion. Finalmente, y como elemento clave en la dinámica de los ecosistemas riparios, el capítulo 5 desarrolla una metodología para clasificar las fases de sucesión de la vegetación del bosque ripario. Dichas fases de sucesión se basan en la metodología del proyecto RIPFLOW, que también está implementada en el modelo dinámico CASiMiR-vegetation. / [CA] Els ecosistemes riparis presenten una gran variabilitat, des d'un punt de vista geomorfològic com a hidrològic i ecològic, incloent les complexes interaccions que la morfologia i la vegetació de ribera pot presentar. La vegetació es presenta com un factor físic molt influent en els sistemes fluvials, amb una relació directa en els processos geomorfològics que tenen lloc en els corredors fluvials. La detecció, monitoratge i avaluació dels processos que es desenvolupen en l'espai ripari són clau a l'hora de poder entendre les funcions ecològiques i el desenvolupament d'aquests hàbitats, i per tant per a prendre decisions per a la seua conservació i restauració. Segons la distribució d'espècies i els trets de les plantes, les comunitats vegetals i la seua dinàmica presenten diferents característiques en l'ecosistema ripario, a les quals els mètodes de detecció i monitoratge han d'adaptar-se. Els constants canvis que pateixen aquests espais al llarg del temps es deuen en gran part a processos físics relacionats amb les dinàmiques d'erosió i sedimentació, les variacions de la trajectòria del llit, variacions en la distribució d'espècies i vegetació en el bosc de ribera, etc., però també es deuen a l'impacte antropogènic, que pot arribar a generar grans desajustaments en la dinàmica ecològica dels ecosistemes en qüestió. A causa de les interaccions de diversos processos i alteracions antropogèniques, i les complexes dinàmiques espaciotemporals, resulta necessari continuar desenvolupant metodologies teòriques i pràctiques per al monitoratge i caracterització d'aquests ecosistemes. La teledetecció, incloent l'ús de drons, es presenta com una eina molt interessant i òptima per al mapatge i recollida d'informació en aquests espais naturals. Els beneficis que demostren les aeronaus no tripulades -UAV- inclouen les millores en la resolució espacial i temporal de les dades capturades, així com la cartografia d'àrees extenses en poc temps, la qual cosa els converteix en instruments clau en tasques de gestió i conservació dels espais riparis. La necessitat d'estudiar la dinàmica geomorfològica que es produeix en els llits fluvials ha sigut la principal motivació en els estudis que es presenten en aquesta tesi doctoral. Els capítols 2 i 3 es basen en tècniques de captura de dades amb làser escàner terrestre (TLS) i en el modelatge de les dades obtingudes en vols fotogramètrics de UAV. Amb ells s'han caracteritzat els processos que tenen lloc en una certa àrea d'estudi, un llit efímer del sud-est de la Península Ibèrica, la Rambla de la Azohía (Múrcia). Aquests estudis també han permés comparar l'ajust i precisió de les dades capturades a partir de dues tècniques diferents. A més, l'interés a caracteritzar els llits fluvials amb un flux permanent ha motivat l'estudi de la topografia submergida en un tram de riu, segmentat per tipus de mesohábitat. Així doncs, el capítol 4 presenta un algorisme i una eina de correcció per a l'efecte de la refracció en un tram del va riure Palància (Castelló), per a dur a terme la correcta representació de la morfologia del llit submergit. A partir de la metodologia plantejada i l'algorisme desenvolupat, és possible minimitzar els efectes de distorsió deguts a la presència de l'aigua, per a obtindre la reconstrucció tridimensional del llit a partir d'imatges preses amb UAV. La construcció del model 3D es va dur a terme mitjançant la tècnica de Structure from Motion. Finalment, i com a element clau en la dinàmica dels ecosistemes riparis, el capítol 5 desenvolupa una metodologia per a classificar les fases de successió de la vegetació del bosc ripari. Aquestes fases de successió es basen en la metodologia del projecte RIPFLOW, que també està implementada en el model dinàmic CASiMiR-vegetation. / [EN] Riparian ecosystems show great variability, from a geomorphological, hydrological and ecological point of view, including the complex interactions that riparian morphology and vegetation can present. Vegetation appears as a very influential physical factor in river systems, with a direct relationship in the geomorphological processes that take place in river corridors. The detection, monitoring and evaluation of the processes that take place in the riparian space are key when it comes to understanding the ecological functions and development of these habitats, and therefore for making decisions for their conservation and restoration. According to the distribution of species and plant traits, plant communities and their dynamics present different characteristics in the riparian ecosystem, to which detection and monitoring methods must be adapted. The constant changes that these spaces undergo over time are largely due to physical processes related to the dynamics of erosion and sedimentation, variations in the path of the channel, variations in the distribution of species and vegetation in the riparian forest, etc. These processes also are due to the anthropogenic impact, which can generate major imbalances in the ecological dynamics of the ecosystems in question. Due to the interactions of various anthropogenic processes and alterations, and the complex spatio-temporal dynamics, it is necessary to continue developing theoretical and practical methodologies for the monitoring and characterization of these ecosystems. Remote sensing, including the use of drones, is presented as a very interesting and optimal tool for mapping and collecting information in these natural spaces. The benefits demonstrated by unmanned aircraft -UAV- include improvements in the spatial and temporal resolution of the captured data, as well as the mapping of large areas in a short time, which makes them key instruments in the management and conservation tasks of riparian spaces. The need to study the geomorphological dynamics that occur in river channels has been the main motivation in the studies presented in this doctoral thesis. Chapters 2 and 3 are based on ground-based laser scanner (TLS) data capture techniques and modelling of UAV photogrammetric flight data. They have characterized the processes that take place in a certain study area, an ephemeral riverbed in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula, the Rambla de la Azohía (Murcia). These studies have also made it possible to compare the fit and precision of the data captured from two different techniques. In addition, the interest in characterizing the fluvial channels with a permanent flow has motivated the study of the submerged topography in a stretch of river, segmented by types of mesohabitat. Thus, chapter 4 presents an algorithm and a correction tool for the effect of refraction in a stretch of the Palancia river (Castellón), to carry out the correct representation of the submerged bed morphology. From the proposed methodology and the developed algorithm, it is possible to minimize the distortion effects due to the presence of water, to obtain the three-dimensional reconstruction of the bed from images taken with UAVs. The construction of the 3D model was carried out using the Structure from Motion technique. Finally, and as a key element in the dynamics of riparian ecosystems, chapter 5 develops a methodology to classify the phases of succession of riparian forest vegetation. These succession phases are based on the RIPFLOW project methodology, which is also implemented in the dynamic CASiMiR-vegetation model. / Agradezco a Francisca Segura y a Carles Sanchis por su ayuda y trabajo conjunto en el proyecto “Natural and anthropogenic changes in Mediterranean river drainage basins: historical impacts on rivers morphology, sedimentary flows and vegetation” financiado por el Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) (CGL2013-44917-R). Agradezco también a la Universidad de Murcia y la Universidad de Alicante así como al proyecto de investigación “Respuesta morfológica y sistémica al cambio climático en cauces efímeros mediterráneos: dinámica, resiliencia y propuestas de actuación” funded by ERDF/Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities—State Research Agency/Project CGL2017-84625-C2-1-R (CCAMICEM); State Program for Research, Development and Innovation Focused on the Challenges of Society, del Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) y EU FEDER (Project TEC2017- 85244-C2-1-P) y de la Universidad de Alicante (vigrob-157 and GRE18-05). / Puig Mengual, CA. (2021). Remote Sensing and UAVs for the Geomorphological and Habitat Analysis in Ephemeral and Permanent Mediterranean Streams [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/177643 / Compendio

Intra-archipelago waterways, including tidal strait networks, present a complex set of barriers to, and conduits for sediment transport between marine basins. Tidal straits may also be the least well understood tide-dominated sedimentary environment. To address these issues, currents, sediment transport pathways, and seabed sedimentology & geomorphology were studied in the central Salish Sea (Gulf and San Juan Islands region) of British Columbia, Canada and Washington State, USA. A variety of data types were integrated: 3D & 2D tidal models, multibeam bathymetry & backscatter, seabed video, grab samples, cores and seismic reflection. This dissertation included the first regional sediment transport modelling study of the central Salish Sea. Lagrangian particle dispersal simulations were driven by 2D tidal hydrodynamics (~59-days). It was found that flood-tide dominance through narrow intra-archipelago connecting straits resulted in the transfer of sediment into the inland Strait of Georgia, an apparent sediment sink. The formative/maintenance processes at a variety of seabed landforms, including a banner bank with giant dunes, were explained with modelled tides and sediment transport. Deglacial history and modern lateral sedimentological and morphological transitions were also considered. Based on this modern environment, adjustments to the tidal strait facies model were identified. In addition, erosion and deposition patterns across the banner bank (dune complex) were monitored with 8-repeat multibeam sonar surveys (~10 years). With these data, spatially variable bathymetric change detection techniques were explored: A) a cell-by-cell probabilistic depth uncertainty-based threshold (t-test); and B) coherent clusters of change pixels identified with the local Moran's Ii spatial autocorrelation statistic. Uncertainty about volumetric change is a considerable challenge in seabed change research, compared to terrestrial studies. Consideration of volumetric change confidence intervals tempers interpretations and communicates metadata. Techniques A & B may both be used to restrict volumetric change calculations in area, to exclude low relative bathymetric change signal areas. / Graduate / 2018-12-07

Although the physical characteristics of surfing breaks are well described in the literature, there is little specific research on surfing and coastal management. Such research is required because coastal engineering has had significant impacts to surfing breaks, both positive and negative. Strategic planning and environmental impact assessment methods, a central tenet of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM), are recommended by this thesis to maximise surfing amenities. The research reported here identifies key oceanographic considerations required for ICZM around surfing breaks including: surfing wave parameters; surfing break components; relationship between surfer skill, surfing manoeuvre type and wave parameters; wind effects on waves; currents; geomorphic surfing break categorisation; beach-state and morphology; and offshore wave transformations. Key coastal activities that can have impacts to surfing breaks are identified. Environmental data types to consider during coastal studies around surfing breaks are presented and geographic information systems (GIS) are used to manage and interpret such information. To monitor surfing breaks, a shallow water multibeam echo sounding system was utilised and a RTK GPS water level correction and hydrographic GIS methodology developed. Including surfing in coastal management requires coastal engineering solutions that incorporate surfing. As an example, the efficacy of the artificial surfing reef (ASR) at Mount Maunganui, New Zealand, was evaluated. GIS, multibeam echo soundings, oceanographic measurements, photography, and wave modelling were all applied to monitor sea floor morphology around the reef. Results showed that the beach-state has more cellular circulation since the reef was installed, and a groin effect on the offshore bar was caused by the structure within the monitoring period, trapping sediment updrift and eroding sediment downdrift. No identifiable shoreline salient was observed. Landward of the reef, a scour hole ~3 times the surface area of the reef has formed. The current literature on ASRs has primarily focused on reef shape and its role in creating surfing waves. However, this study suggests that impacts to the offshore bar, beach-state, scour hole and surf zone hydrodynamics should all be included in future surfing reef designs. More real world reef studies, including ongoing monitoring of existing surfing reefs are required to validate theoretical concepts in the published literature.