Thesis (M.S.M.E.)--University of Delaware, 2005. / Principal faculty advisor: Ajay K. Prasad, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering. Includes bibliographical references.

Research into the mechanisms responsible for the lasting, cyclic activity at Masaya volcano can lead to a better understanding of persistently degassing volcanoes. This study is greatly enhanced by the integration of dynamic micro-gravity, deformation and gas flux measurements. The acquisition of extended temporal and spatial geophysical data will also allow for the development of robust models for the dynamics of magmatic systems. Masaya volcano, Nicaragua, is one of the most active systems in Central America, making it an excellent natural laboratory for this study. It is noted for repeated episodes of lava lake formation, strong degassing and subsequent quiescence. Ground-based geophysical measurements show two episodes of similar magnitude gravity decreases in 1993-1994 and 1997-1999, separated by a period of minor gravity increase. A major increase in S02 gas flux from 1997-1999 correlates well with the most recent episode of gravity decrease. The gravity changes are not accompanied by deformation in the summit areas and are interpreted in terms of sub-surface density changes. The persistent degassing at Masaya suggests that up to -15 krrr' of magma may have degassed over the last 150 years, only a minute fraction of which has been erupted. Furthermore, thermal flux calculations suggest that 0.5 krrr' of magma (the estimated volume of the shallow reservoir) would cool from liquidus to just above solidus temperatures in only 5 years. The high rates of degassing and cooling at open-system volcanoes such as Masaya raise questions as to the ultimate fate of this degassed and cooled magma. A number of models have been proposed to explain this, but the most likely mechanism to explain persistent activity at Masaya and other similar volcanoes is convective removal of cooled and degassed magma and subsequent recharge by volatile-rich magma from depth. Another fundamental question in modem volcanology concerns the manner in which a volcanic eruption is triggered; the intrusion of fresh magma into a reservoir is thought to be a key component. The amount by which previously ponded reservoir magma interacts with a newly intruded magma will determine the nature and rate of eruption as well as the chemistry of erupted lavas and shallow dykes. The physics of this interaction can be investigated through a conventional monitoring procedure that incorporates the Mogi model relating ground deformation (~) to changes in volume of a magma reservoir. Gravity changes (.1.g)combined with ground deformation provides information on magma reservoir mass changes. Models developed here predict how, during inflation, the observed .1.gI~ gradient will evolve as a volcano develops from a state of dormancy through unrest into a state of explosive activity.

abstract: As miniature and high-heat-dissipation equipment became major manufacture and operation trends, heat-rejecting and heat-transport solutions faced increasing challenges. In the 1970s, researchers showed that particle suspensions can enhance the heat transfer efficiency of their base fluids. However, their work was hindered by the sedimentation and erosion issues caused by the relatively large particle sizes in their suspensions. More recently, nanofluids--suspensions of nanoparticles in liquids-were proposed to be applied as heat transfer fluids, because of the enhanced thermal conductivity that has generally been observed. However, in practical applications, a heat conduction mechanism may not be sufficient for cooling high-heat-dissipation devices such as microelectronics or powerful optical equipment. Thus, the thermal performance under convective, i.e., flowing heat transfer conditions becomes of primary interest. In addition, with the presence of nanoparticles, the viscosity of a nanofluid is greater than its base fluid and deviates from Einstein's classical prediction. Through the use of a test rig designed and assembled as part of this dissertation, the viscosity and heat transfer coefficient of nanofluids can be simultaneously determined by pressure drop and temperature difference measurements under laminar flow conditions. An extensive characterization of the nanofluid samples, including pH, electrical conductivity, particle sizing and zeta potential, is also documented. Results indicate that with constant wall heat flux, the relative viscosities of nanofluid decrease with increasing volume flow rate. The results also show, based on Brenner's model, that the nanofluid viscosity can be explained in part by the aspect ratio of the aggregates. The measured heat transfer coefficient values for nanofluids are generally higher than those for base fluids. In the developing region, this can be at least partially explained by Prandtl number effects. The Nusselt number ( Nu ) results for nanofluid show that Nu increases with increasing nanofluid volume fraction and volume flow rate. However, only DI-H2O (deionized water) and 5/95 PG/H2O (PG = propylene glycol) based nanofluids with 1 vol% nanoparticle loading have Nu greater than the theoretical prediction, 4.364. It is suggested that the nanofluid has potential to be applied within the thermally developing region when utilizing the nanofluid as a heat transfer liquid in a circular tube. The suggested Reynold's number is greater than 100. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Mechanical Engineering 2010

O presente estudo visa dar luz sobre fenômenos ainda pouco explorados que ocorrem durante a estratificação em leitos de jigagem, bem como sobre novas possibilidades de aplicação da técnica. Por meio de testes com misturas de agregados em jigues hidráulico e pneumático descontínuos, foi pela primeira vez examinada a ocorrência de convecção granular em jigues. Os fatores envolvidos em sua formação e a influência sobre a estratificação foram analisados em detalhes. Do mesmo modo, foi examinada a influência da granulometria do leito sobre a estratificação em jigues pneumáticos e a possibilidade de uso do mesmo como um equipamento multi-separador. Os resultados revelam a existência de um fluxo ordenado e estacionário de partículas durante a pulsação do leito, ascendente na porção central e descendente nas bordas do jigue, de modo similar ao fluxo convectivo descritos na literatura para leitos vibrados mecanicamente. Este fluxo convectivo gerou uma distorção no rearranjo do leito estratificado, dando origem a um perfil horizontal de estratificação no qual as partículas leves se concentraram nas bordas e as partículas densas se concentraram preferencialmente na zona central dos estratos. Com base nos resultados, um mecanismo de formação do fluxo convectivo e um modelo preditivo do rearranjo do leito foram propostos. Observou-se também que a diminuição da granulometria e o aumento da distribuição de tamanho dos constituintes do leito teve um efeito positivo sobre a estratificação. Os resultados sugerem que isto pode estar em parte relacionado a maior compactação do leito quando da presença de partículas de menor tamanho. Também, resultados experimentais demonstraram a possibilidade de uso do jigue pneumático para realizar a operação conjunta de separação de materiais rochosos e não rochosos em um único estágio. O desempenho global na remoção de contaminantes não-rochosos foi similar ao de separadores pneumáticos e sistemas de "sorting" automático descritos na literatura. Ainda, a quantidade inicial de contaminantes no sistema teve um efeito desprezível sobre o desempenho. Os resultados obtidos, em particular aqueles relacionados à convecção granular, fornecem novas perspectivas a respeito dos fenômenos envolvidos na estratificação em jigues. Ainda, benefícios práticos podem ser extraídos a partir dos resultados da análise do efeito da granulometria sobre a estratificação e do uso de jigues pneumáticos como multi-separadores. / This study aims to shed some light on some unclear phenomena that occurs during particle stratification in jigs as well as on new possibilities of application of jigging technique. For the first time, the occurrence of granular convection in jigging beds was analyzed by considering the case of hydraulic and pneumatic jigs operating with mixtures of aggregates. The elements involved in the pattern formation and its influence on bed stratification were analyzed in detail. The influence of particle size distribution on bed stratification and the possibility of using pneumatic jigging as a multi-separator were also examined. The experimental results reveal the existence of a steady, ordered flow of particles over bed pulsation, in which particles move upward in the center of the jig bed and downward along the walls of the jig container, similarly to the circulation patterns reported in the literature. The convection gave rise to a distortion in the particle rearrangement, engendering the formation of a horizontal stratification profile in which light particles tended to be concentrated along the walls while dense particles tended to be concentrated preferentially in the center portion of the strata. On the basis of the experimental results, a mechanism of pattern formation and a prediction model were proposed. The results also revealed that the decrease of the particle size and the increase in the particle size distribution had a positive influence on stratification extent. It was suggested by the results that this behavior can be related to the higher bed compaction due to the presence of smaller particles in the bed. Also, experimental results indicated the technical feasibility of the combined use of pneumatic jigging for the removal undesired non-stony materials together with the bed stratification in only one single stage. The reported separation efficiency in the removal of low-density materials was comparable to those of air classifiers and automatic sorting systems. Also, the initial content of contaminants seemed to have a negligible effect on the separation performance. The results obtained, in particular those related to the granular convection, provides new perspectives about the phenomena involved in stratification by jigging. Moreover, practical benefits can be obtained from the results about the influence of particle size on bed stratification and about the usage of pneumatic jigging for multi-separation.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering / Hitesh Bindra / Helium-cooled, graphite moderated reactors have been considered for a future fleet of high temperature and high efficiency nuclear power plants. Nuclear-grade graphite is used in these reactors for structural strength, neutron moderation, heat transfer and, within a helium environment, has demonstrated stability at temperatures well above HTGR operating conditions. However, in the case of an air ingress accident, the oxygen introduced into the core can affect the integrity of the fuel graphite matrix. In this work a combination of computational models and mixed effects experiments were used to better understand the air ingress process and its potential effects on the heat removal capabilities of an HTGR design following an air-ingress accident. Contributions were made in the understanding of the air-ingress phenomenon, its potential effects on graphite, and in experimental and computational techniques. The first section of this thesis focuses on experimental and computational studies that were undertaken to further the understanding of the Onset of Natural Convection (ONC) phenomenon expected to occur inside of an HTGR following an air ingress accident. The effects of two newly identified factors on ONC – i.e., the existence of the large volume of stagnate helium in a reactor's upper plenum, and the possibility of an upper head leak – were investigated. Mixed-effects experimental studies were performed to determine the changes induced in nuclear grade graphite exposed to high-temperature, oxidizing flow of varying flow rates. Under all scenarios, the thermal diffusivity of the graphite test samples was shown to increase. Thermal conductivity changes due to oxidation were found to be minor in the tested graphite samples – especially compared to the large drop in thermal conductivity the graphite is expected to experience due to irradiation. Oxidation was also found to increase the graphite's surface roughness and create a thin outer layer of decreased density. The effects of thermal contacts on the passive cooling ability of an HTGR were experimentally investigated. Conduction cool down experiments were performed on assemblies consisting of a number of rods packed into a cylindrical tube. Experimental conditions were then modeled using several different methodologies, including a novel graph laplacian approach, and their results compared to the experimentally obtained temperature data. Although the graph laplacian technique shows great promise, the 2–D Finite Element Model (FEM) provided the best results. Finally, a case study was constructed in which a section of a pebble bed reactor consisting of a number of randomly packed, spherical fuel particles was modeled using the validated FEM technique. Using a discrete elements model, a stable, randomly packed geometry was created to represent the pebble bed. A conduction cool down scenario was modeled and the results from the FEM model were compared to best possible results obtainable from a more traditional, homogeneous 1–D approximation. When the graphite in the bed was modeled as both oxided and irradiated, the homogeneous method mispredicted the maximum temperature given by the 3–D, FEM model by more than 100°C.

This thesis consists of three distinct parts of CAST, CONTRAST and ATTREX, which were aircraft and field campaigns in the West Pacific in January-March 2014. The first section comprises of ozonesonde measurements from Manus Island, Papua New Guinea. A contamination issue affected the first 14 ozonesondes, and so particular care was required to characterize the background current, and as a result, a 'hybrid' background current correction was developed, which combines a constant correction with a pressure dependent correction. Collocated measurements with the CONTRAST aircraft - the NCAR Gulfsteam V - suggests the new hybrid correction produces better ozonesonde profiles than the other corrections that are found in the literature. The results of the ozonesonde measurements revealed a low-ozone event, with minimum ozone concentrations of ~12 ppbv, which was coincident with an easterly jet, and traced back to an area of deep convection: clean marine boundary layer air was uplifted into the tropical tropopause layer (TTL) and then advected in the easterly jet across to Manus Island. The second section attempted to find more examples of low-ozone conditions in the TTL from the aircraft data. The ATTREX aircraft - the NASA Northrop Grumman Global Hawk - observed ozone concentrations of ~10 ppbv in the Southern Hemisphere in proximity of tropical storm Lusi. Whole air samples from all three aircraft suggests the low-ozone air had recently encountered the boundary layer, with enhanced concentrations of surface-generated very short lived substances (VSLSs) compared to air with higher ozone concentrations. No low-ozone events were found in the Northern Hemisphere, even in the vicinity of tropical cyclone Faxai. The third section explores the low-ozone events in the WRF-Chem (Weather Research and Forecasting - with chemistry) in order to see whether the model was capable of recreating the low-ozone event measured by the ozonesondes on 21-23 February as a case study. The WRF-Chem simulation did correctly reproduce the large convective storm in a similar area to that observed by satellites, and surface tracers were uplifted in large quantities as hypothesized. However, no evidence of injection of air into the stratosphere was found in the simulation, and, rather than uplift directly from the surface, mixing of air in the boundary layer followed by uplift into the TTL was the main mechanism for producing the low-ozone event.

Convection in the Earth's mantle is a complicated phenomenon that causes various tectonic activities and affects mantle evolution on geologic time scales (billions of years). It is a subject as yet not fully understood. The early success of the high Rayleigh number constant viscosity theory was later tempered by the absence of plate motion when the viscosity is more realistically strongly temperature dependent. A similar problem arises if the equally strong pressure dependence of viscosity is considered, since the classical isothermal core convection theory would then imply a strongly variable mantle viscosity, which is inconsistent with results from postglacial rebound studies. We consider a mathematical model for Rayleigh-Bénard convection in a basally heated layer of a fluid whose viscosity depends strongly on both temperature and pressure, defined in an Arrhenius form. The model is solved numerically for extremely large viscosity variations across a unit aspect ratio cell, and steady solutions are obtained. To improve the efficiency of numerical computation, we introduce a modified viscosity law with a low temperature cut-off. We demonstrate that this simplification results in markedly improved numerical convergence without compromising accuracy. Continued numerical experiments suggest that narrow cells are preferred at extreme viscosity contrasts. We are then able to determine the asymptotic structure of the solution, and it agrees well with the numerical results. Beneath a stagnant lid, there is a vigorous convection in the upper part of the cell, and a more sluggish, higher viscosity flow in the lower part of the cell. We then offer some comments on the meaning and interpretation of these results for planetary mantle convection.

La fraction massique des constituants au sein d'un mélange multi-constituants, cesse d'être homogène lorsque ce dernier est soumis à un gradient thermique. En effet, la présence d'un gradient thermique engendre une diffusion de masse au sein du mélange détruisant cette homogénéité. Cet effet connu depuis le XIXe siècle porte le nom de la thermodiffusion, ou encore l'effet Soret. On définit la diffusion thermogravitationnelle comme étant le couplage entre la thermodiffusion et la convection. La diffusion thermogravitaionnelle peut conduire à des séparations importantes dans les fluides multi-constituants comparée à la thermodiffusion. On s'intéresse dans ce travail de thèse, comportant une partie numérique et théorique, aux différentes structures d'écoulement et à la séparation des espèces d'une solution binaire remplissant une cavité parallélépipédique fluide ou poreuse. La cavité, placée dans le champ de la pesanteur, est soumise au niveau de ses parois horizontales et verticales à des densités de flux uniformes et croisés. L'analyse dimensionnelle de ce problème de convection thermogravitationnelle fait ressortir un certain nombre de paramètres sans dimension à savoir les nombres de Rayleigh thermique / The mass fraction of the components in a multi-component mixture ceases to be homogeneous when it is subjected to a thermal gradient. Indeed, the presence of a thermal gradient causes mass distribution within the mixture which destroys this homogeneity. This effect known since the nineteenth century is called thermodiffusion, or the Soret effect. The thermogravitational diffusion is defined as the coupling between the thermodiffusion and convection. The thermogravitational diffusion may lead to significant separations in fluids multi components compared to thermodiffusion. We focus in this thesis, including both numerical and theoretical parts, on the different flow structures and species separation of a binary solution filling a rectangular fluid or porous cavity. The cavity, placed in the gravity field is subjected to uniform heat fluxes densities at the horizontal and vertical walls. Dimensional analysis of this thermogravitational convection problem reveals a number of dimensionless parameters namely: thermal Rayleigh number

Purely diffusive O2 transport typically is insufficient to sustain aerobic metabolism in most multicellular organisms. In small animals, however, a high surface-to-volume ratio may allow passive diffusion alone to supply sufficient O2 transfer. The purpose of this thesis was to explore the impacts of internal convection on the exchange of respiratory gases in a small complex organism, the larval zebrafish (Danio rerio). Thus, I tested the hypothesis that internal convection is required for the normal transfer of the respiratory gases O2 and CO2 and maintenance of resting aerobic metabolic rate. Use of morpholino knockdown of the VEGF-A and TNNT2 proteins allowed examination of two independent models lacking internal convection. Using micro-respirometry, I demonstrated that loss of internal convection reduces resting rates of O2 consumption and CO2 excretion in larvae at 4 days post fertilization. I also used the scanning micro-optrode technique to demonstrate that acute loss of internal convection resulted in reduced rates of cutaneous O2 flux, a trait that was reversed upon the restoration of internal convection. Finally, I demonstrated that in larval zebrafish, loss of internal convection resulted in decreased hypoxic performance and loss or severe reduction of the hypoxic cardiorespiratory responses. The results from these experiments showed that internal convection is i) required to maintain resting rates of respiratory gas transfer in the larval zebrafish, ii) important in facilitating the hypoxic cardiorespiratory responses in larval zebrafish and iii) augments O2 extraction capacity in the face of progressive hypoxia.

O presente estudo visa dar luz sobre fenômenos ainda pouco explorados que ocorrem durante a estratificação em leitos de jigagem, bem como sobre novas possibilidades de aplicação da técnica. Por meio de testes com misturas de agregados em jigues hidráulico e pneumático descontínuos, foi pela primeira vez examinada a ocorrência de convecção granular em jigues. Os fatores envolvidos em sua formação e a influência sobre a estratificação foram analisados em detalhes. Do mesmo modo, foi examinada a influência da granulometria do leito sobre a estratificação em jigues pneumáticos e a possibilidade de uso do mesmo como um equipamento multi-separador. Os resultados revelam a existência de um fluxo ordenado e estacionário de partículas durante a pulsação do leito, ascendente na porção central e descendente nas bordas do jigue, de modo similar ao fluxo convectivo descritos na literatura para leitos vibrados mecanicamente. Este fluxo convectivo gerou uma distorção no rearranjo do leito estratificado, dando origem a um perfil horizontal de estratificação no qual as partículas leves se concentraram nas bordas e as partículas densas se concentraram preferencialmente na zona central dos estratos. Com base nos resultados, um mecanismo de formação do fluxo convectivo e um modelo preditivo do rearranjo do leito foram propostos. Observou-se também que a diminuição da granulometria e o aumento da distribuição de tamanho dos constituintes do leito teve um efeito positivo sobre a estratificação. Os resultados sugerem que isto pode estar em parte relacionado a maior compactação do leito quando da presença de partículas de menor tamanho. Também, resultados experimentais demonstraram a possibilidade de uso do jigue pneumático para realizar a operação conjunta de separação de materiais rochosos e não rochosos em um único estágio. O desempenho global na remoção de contaminantes não-rochosos foi similar ao de separadores pneumáticos e sistemas de "sorting" automático descritos na literatura. Ainda, a quantidade inicial de contaminantes no sistema teve um efeito desprezível sobre o desempenho. Os resultados obtidos, em particular aqueles relacionados à convecção granular, fornecem novas perspectivas a respeito dos fenômenos envolvidos na estratificação em jigues. Ainda, benefícios práticos podem ser extraídos a partir dos resultados da análise do efeito da granulometria sobre a estratificação e do uso de jigues pneumáticos como multi-separadores. / This study aims to shed some light on some unclear phenomena that occurs during particle stratification in jigs as well as on new possibilities of application of jigging technique. For the first time, the occurrence of granular convection in jigging beds was analyzed by considering the case of hydraulic and pneumatic jigs operating with mixtures of aggregates. The elements involved in the pattern formation and its influence on bed stratification were analyzed in detail. The influence of particle size distribution on bed stratification and the possibility of using pneumatic jigging as a multi-separator were also examined. The experimental results reveal the existence of a steady, ordered flow of particles over bed pulsation, in which particles move upward in the center of the jig bed and downward along the walls of the jig container, similarly to the circulation patterns reported in the literature. The convection gave rise to a distortion in the particle rearrangement, engendering the formation of a horizontal stratification profile in which light particles tended to be concentrated along the walls while dense particles tended to be concentrated preferentially in the center portion of the strata. On the basis of the experimental results, a mechanism of pattern formation and a prediction model were proposed. The results also revealed that the decrease of the particle size and the increase in the particle size distribution had a positive influence on stratification extent. It was suggested by the results that this behavior can be related to the higher bed compaction due to the presence of smaller particles in the bed. Also, experimental results indicated the technical feasibility of the combined use of pneumatic jigging for the removal undesired non-stony materials together with the bed stratification in only one single stage. The reported separation efficiency in the removal of low-density materials was comparable to those of air classifiers and automatic sorting systems. Also, the initial content of contaminants seemed to have a negligible effect on the separation performance. The results obtained, in particular those related to the granular convection, provides new perspectives about the phenomena involved in stratification by jigging. Moreover, practical benefits can be obtained from the results about the influence of particle size on bed stratification and about the usage of pneumatic jigging for multi-separation.