Diss.--Freiburg. / Bibliography: p. [111]-114.

Cette thèse s’inscrit dans la problématique suivant laquelle la protection diplomatique des personnes morales est différente de la protection diplomatique des personnes physiques. Initialement pourtant, lors de l’élaboration de la protection diplomatique des individus à la fin du XVIIIe siècle, le corps de règles la constituant a été considéré applicable à la protection diplomatique des personnes morales. Cette analogie est aujourd’hui discutable et sa discussion constitue le fil directeur de la présente recherche. L’émergence de la personne privée en tant que sujet, au moins partiel, du droit international et la globalisation économique soulèvent de nombreuses questions et constituent de nouveaux axes de recherche en cette matière. En ce domaine, un renouvellement et une harmonisation semblent nécessaires. / This thesis defends the idea that diplomatic protection of juridical persons is different from diplomatic protection of individuals. At the end of 18th century nevertheless, rules of each of these protections were created as identical. These rules have not really changed. This analogy is nowadays questionable and is discussed in this research. Indeed, the evolution of private persons as subjects (at least partial) of international law and the economic globalization ask this question, and constitute new lines for the study of this matter. In this field, renewal and harmonization appear necessary.

LL.M. (International Law) / This thesis is based on the jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice viz a viz the South African law and practices as it relates to diplomatic protection of nationals or corporate entities who encounter problem with the law in a foreign country. How the concept of diplomatic protection has assisted individuals and corporate entities who wish to go to a foreign country for whatever reason to feel free and relaxed knowing that their lives and property are protected. The expose examines the rights of individuals to diplomatic protection in international law in comparison with the rights of nationals to request for diplomatic protection in South Africa. The questions posed are; what is the liability of the state to its nationals, what level of responsibility is to be exhibited by the state when providing diplomatic protection and do such nationals have a right to demand to be protected in international law and or municipal law. Chapter one will examine the growth and historical development of diplomatic protection and the position as it is today. Chapter two will deal with nationality issues, this is because to determine who will be the beneficiary of diplomatic protection nationality must first be determined. The issues to be discussed in this chapter are: acquisition of nationality, double or multiple nationalities, continuity of nationality, loss of nationality, nationality of a Corporation and its shareholders, stateless persons and refugees, and the right to diplomatic protection. In answering the question of state responsibility, chapter three will examine the local remedy rules. This is because local remedies will have to be exhausted before the state can intervene. Chapter four will examine the treatment of alien which include expulsion of alien, expropriation of foreign property, and consular protection. Various attempts have been made to define Diplomatic protection, but there has not been a generally accepted definition. Some of these definitions are highlighted below. A description is also provided below to help with the understanding and scope of diplomatic protection.

Final thesis Topic: Diplomatic protection Thesis supervisor: JUDr. Vladimír Balaš, CSc. Student: Marek Čermák Thesis on the topic of diplomatic protection deals with the granting of exercise of diplomatic protection by the states and is divided into seven chapters which follow each other. The first chapter describes the diplomatic protection and its historical foundations. The second chapter focuses on the possibility of exercise of diplomatic protection in respect of natural persons and the conditions that need to be fulfilled for the posibility of exercise of such protection. The third chapter focuses on the exercise of diplomatic protection in respect of legal persons and the conditions that must be fulfilled for the posibility of exercise of such protection. The fourth chapter describes the internationally accepted rule of exhaustion of local remedies, as well as exceptions to this rule. The fifth chapter describes the procedures of states where is no exercise of diplomatic protection, but enforcement of protection granted on other grounds. The sixth chapter deals with the procedures of states which are different from the rules of international law. And the seventh chapter describes the procedure of states in situation of granting diplomatic protection.

This thesis will reassess the traditional doctrine of diplomatic protection in light of two significant and related developments in modern international law: (i) the proliferation of international human rights law and its granting of rights to individuals as subjects of international law; and (ii) the evolving conception of State sovereignty as including responsibility pursuant to the U.N.’s “Responsibility to Protect” doctrine. It will argue that the traditional doctrine – which holds that States have a discretionary right to espouse claims on behalf of their own nationals for wrongs committed against them by other States, but that the individuals harmed have no right to protection – is outdated and that these developments should lead to the recognition of a limited individual right and concomitant State obligation to provide diplomatic protection in certain circumstances. Responsibility to protect thus confirms a duty to protect using diplomatic means.

This thesis will reassess the traditional doctrine of diplomatic protection in light of two significant and related developments in modern international law: (i) the proliferation of international human rights law and its granting of rights to individuals as subjects of international law; and (ii) the evolving conception of State sovereignty as including responsibility pursuant to the U.N.’s “Responsibility to Protect” doctrine. It will argue that the traditional doctrine – which holds that States have a discretionary right to espouse claims on behalf of their own nationals for wrongs committed against them by other States, but that the individuals harmed have no right to protection – is outdated and that these developments should lead to the recognition of a limited individual right and concomitant State obligation to provide diplomatic protection in certain circumstances. Responsibility to protect thus confirms a duty to protect using diplomatic means.

Šis magistro baigiamasis darbas skirtas investicijų apsaugos užsienio valstybėse analizei. Klasikinėje tarptautinėje teisėje visiškas subjektiškumas buvo suprantamas kaip būdingas tik valstybėms, todėl visi tarptautiniai santykiai, tarp jų ir ginčų sprendimas buvo valstybių tarpusavio reikalas. Dėl to, jei reikėdavo ginti asmenį užsienyje patyrusį žalą, tai galima buvo padaryti tik remiantis fikcija – kad žala padaryta asmeniui yra žala padaryta jo valstybei. Jei asmuo investavęs į užsienio valstybę patirdavo žalą dėl neteisėtų investicijas priimančios valstybės veiksmų, jis pats galėdavo kreiptis dėl kompensacijos į vietinius valstybės teismus arba į savo pilietybės ar nacionalinės priklausomybės valstybę, kad ši imtųsi diplomatinių priemonių. Šiuolaikinė tarptautinė teisė subjektų klausimu, galima sakyti, žengia toliau. Šiuo metu fiziniai asmenys yra įgiję dalinį tarptautinį teisinį subjektiškumą žmogaus teisių srityje. Nuosavybės apsauga (tame tarpe ir investicijų apsauga) yra viena iš svarbiausių žmogaus teisių, deklaruojamų tiek valstybių konstitucijose, tiek tarptautiniuose dokumentuose, todėl investuotojai gali patys, be savo valstybės įtraukimo ar įsikišimo, išspręsti investicinį ginčą su investicijas priimančia valstybe. Įvairių instrumentų pagalba šiuolaikinėje tarptautinėje teisėje yra sukurta nemažai pažeistų teisių gynimo mechanizmų, kuriais gali pasinaudoti investuotojai tiek fiziniai, tiek juridiniai asmenys. Jei investuotojas siekia investicinį ginčą... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / The analysis of the protection of foreign investment is the key object of this master thesis. States were recognized as the only subjects in the classical international law. Therefore all international relationships and disputes where settled between the states themselves. In case of a breach of the rights of a foreign investor it was the state of his nationality to bring any kind of claims in regards to another state. Contemporary international law goes way further in regard to international legal personality of natural persons or legal entities. Partial personality, in particular in the field of human rights, is recognized for the natural/legal persons. Protection of property, as well as investment, is considered to be one of the most fundamental human rights embedded in constitutions and international treaties. Therefore, investors have a right to protect their injured rights by bringing claims in international tribunals. There are quite a few mechanisms for the protection of investors’ rights in the domain of international law. Such as international institutional arbitration, ad hoc arbitration, ECHR, ICSID and diplomatic protection by investor’s state of nationality. The analysis of the investment protection mechanisms wouldn’t be completed without the analysis of the notion of investor itself. There is no universal definition of the notion of investor. In most BIT this notion differs because of the different interests of capital exporting and capital importing countries... [to full text]

This diploma thesis deals with the topic of diplomatic protection and it's use in the system of international law. The goal of this thesis is to describe the legal institute of diplomatic protection and how it is exercised and to describe both the historical development of the institute and it's future direction. The thesis is divided into five chapters that gradually develop and analyse the topic. The first chapter deals with the definition of the legal term diplomatic protection and it's content. It also lists the conditions under which the diplomatic protection can be exercised. Part of the chapter deals with the history of the institute and also speaks about some legal institutes similar to diplomatic protection. The second chapter summarises the efforts taken in order to codify the institute and introduces Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection to the reader. This chapter also describes the current situation of usage of the institute. The third chapter is focused on exercising diplomatic protection on behalf of individual citizens. It's main focus is to list all the necessary conditions under which can diplomatic protection be used in those cases. The fourth chapter on the other hand deals with providing diplomatic protection to legal entities and the conditions of such provision. There is a...

Étant sans doute l'un des phénomènes qui a le plus marqué le droit international depuis 1945, l'internationalisation des droits de l'homme a laissé des traces qui sont perceptibles dans l'ordre juridique international, notamment dans le droit de la responsabilité internationale. La présente étude se propose de mettre en exergue l'influence exercée par les droits de l'homme ainsi que les valeurs qu'ils incarnent sur le droit de la responsabilité internationale. Cette influence s'est traduite par une objectivisation de la responsabilité internationale avec l'élimination du dommage comme élément constitutif de ce mécanisme. En outre, les droits de l'homme ont contribué à préparer le terrain à l'émergence, l'affermissement et l'enrichissement progressif du concept d'obligations erga omnes, facteur favorisant une approche multilatérale de la responsabilité internationale. L'influence des droits de l'homme sur le droit de la responsabilité internationale est surtout manifeste à travers la possibilité désormais reconnue aux individus victimes d'avoir directement accès aux juridictions internationales pour faire valoir leurs droits. Toutes ces évolutions, qui révèlent la place grandissante accordée à l'individu sur la scène internationale et la volonté de faire de la protection des droits de l'homme un sujet de préoccupation de la Communauté internationale, font de la responsabilité pour violation des droits de l'homme une institution spécifique. / Being probably one of the phenomena that has most marked international law since 1945, the internationalization of human rights has left marks that are noticeable in the international legal order, particularly in the international responsibility law. The present study aims to highlight the influence of human rights and the values they incarnate in the law of international responsibility. This influence has resulted in an objectification of international responsibility with the elimination of the damage as an element of that mechanism. In addition, human rights have contributed to prepare the ground for the emergence, consolidation and the gradual enrichment of the concept of erga omnes, factor favoring a multilateral approach to international responsibility. The influence of human rights on the law of international responsibility is mainly manifested through the ability now recognized to individual victims to have direct access to international courts to assert their rights. All these developments, which reveal the increasing importance given to the individual on the international scene and the desire to make the protection of human rights a concern for the international community, make the responsibility for violation of human rights a specific institution.

Das herkömmliche völkerrechtliche Institut des diplomatischen Schutzes ist im Verhältnis zwischen Staaten (als originären Völkerrechtssubjekten) entstanden. Aber auch intergouvernmentale Organisationen sind in der Lage, Maßnahmen mit unmittelbarer Rechtswirkung gegenüber Einzelpersonen zu treffen, so daß auch hier die Frage aufzuwerfen ist, wann und mit welchen Mitteln der jeweilige Heimatstaat die (Grund-)Rechte seiner Staatsangehörigen gegenüber einer solchen Organisation geltend machen kann.