In the years since the genocide, the Government of Rwanda has contributed significant financial resources to the re-establishment and development of its public higher education sector. This investment has largely been justified in terms of the contribution of university graduates to the country’s vision of becoming a service-based knowledge economy, capable of reducing its reliance on foreign aid and technical assistance. Implicit in this vision for the future is an assumption that a university education will help students to improve in their ability to think critically about problems and to use evidence when making decisions. This study empirically investigated this assumption by administering a version of the Collegiate Learning Assessment – a performance-task-based test of critical thinking, adapted for use in Rwanda – to a random sample of 220 students enrolled at three of Rwanda’s most prestigious public institutions. Assessment results were supplemented with in-depth case studies at two of the institutions involved in the study. Results of the study suggest that Rwandan students are not significantly improving in their critical thinking ability during their time at university. Critical thinking ability in Rwanda seems to be largely influenced by the academic experiences provided within university Faculties, as the use of innovative classroom practices appears to have a positive impact on the cultivation of critical thinking skills. However, results indicate that such practices cannot be assumed, as faculty motivation and understanding of pedagogical innovations can significantly affect their effective implementation. The international community has largely focused its higher education reform efforts on improvements in institutional efficiency, but the results of this study indicate that student learning outcomes cannot be ignored. Without similar support for initiatives that seek to improve pedagogy, regional revitalisation efforts are unlikely to have a substantial effect on development objectives.

The mental health and wellbeing of our children and young people is at the forefront of the educational agenda, with academic achievement and life prospects severely compromised for children with conduct disorder (CD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Effective treatments for this client group include those based on cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). However, a subgroup of children with CD, those who also present with high-level callous-unemotional (CU) traits, have been identified, with the relationship between CU traits and treatment effectiveness as yet unclear. This research adopted a mixed methods design to evaluate the effectiveness of a group CBT-based intervention for adolescents (aged 11-13 years) in a mainstream secondary school in Hertfordshire. The intervention, developed from Kazdin‟s Problem Solving Skills Training, Lochman and Larson‟s Anger Coping Programme and Shure‟s I Can Problem Solve, ran for 6 weeks with two groups of students (n=15). Data collected from participants at two time points: pre-intervention (T1) and 8 weeks later post-intervention (T2), measured self-reported behaviour, CU traits, empathy, peer relationships and social goals. Further, data relating to behaviour was collected using the school‟s database (SIMS), and teacher report measure. Qualitative data from student interviews, (T1) and focus groups (T2), explored students‟ perceptions of the intervention. A research journal and post-session evaluations with teaching staff provided further qualitative data related to development and implementation of the intervention. Findings revealed a significant reduction in clinical severity for CD, with no significant change across all other measures. Qualitative data revealed the intervention had been positively received by students. This data set contributed to the development of best practice; informing understanding of practicalities in implementing interventions in mainstream schools, from the perspective of the students, the school and the service provider.

Computer games are common activities in the nineties and have become a new cultural influence in children's lives. Games labeled 'educational software' are said to be beneficial to the development of children's thinking and learning because they provide opportunity to practise problem-solving skills. However, there is little evidence about what really happens in this respect when children play an educational computer game. Prior to this study, there have been no adequate means for assessing reasoning and problem-solving skills in the context of computer games. The study aims to develop ways to measure and analyze gains in children's cognitive skills acquired through computer game activities. To develop a method of assessing children's reasoning, the game chosen was an inferential problem-solving game called 'Find the Flamingo', one of the 'Safari Search' series (O'Brien, 1985). Different versions of the 'Find the Flamingo' game - computer, board and card games - were given with if-then sentences as rules of the game. 282 primary school children took part in this research. Four studies were carried out. Study 1 compared the effects of specific media on children's performance in the game. No difference was found between the use of computers and traditional game tools such as a board or playing cards. Study 2 explored developmental trends and individual differences in problem solving with the game. Differences in the curves of performance groups were shown to be stable across games. The production and use of inferences in the process of playing the game were also examined. Children used the inferences with different levels of accuracy according to the conceptual difficulties in the information. Study 3 explored the impact of guidedplanning and timed pausing for reflection on inferential problem solving with a simplified version of the computer game. Children benefited from guided-planning in the training period. Study 4 examined the development of operative logic of inclusions and exclusions across three inferential tasks and the Flamingo game. The 6- year-old children understood the inclusion rule of multiple possibilities, but they were not able to coordinate the knowledge of inclusion and exclusion to represent more complicated structures. The significant association between the performances of the tasks and of the game even after the control for age allowed the prediction of the Flamingo game performance. Applications of the findings could lead to the design of computer programs that concentrate on specific aspects of problem-solving skills such as planning, and the development of problem-related concepts and operations.

It is known that the presence of information related to, but not necessary for the completion of a speeded experimental task can affect performance. Previous studies involving such 'contextual' effects with information in verbal and nonverbal form have produced mixed results which have been attributed to differing underlying processing mechanisms. The present work examines the extent to which some possible mechanisms could, in common, account for within- and crossmodality contextual effects. 'Priming' information relating to typographic case was presented over time intervals varying up to 480 msec before, and up to 480 msec after, a target to which a speeded category-decision was indicated by a left- or right-hand key-press. Within-attribute' case-priming was effected using a letter string printed either in upper- or lower-case (e.g., `dghej', or 'YFLRB') paired with a similar target for case-decision. Within-attribute name-priming upon name-decision was similarly achieved using the case-denoting words `upper' and 'lower'. 'Cross-attribute' priming was possible through name information priming case-decisions (e.g., `upper-YFLRB'), or, case information priming name-decisions (e.g., 'YFLRB-upper'). The combined effects of case- and name-priming upon case-decision were also investigated using case-denoting words printed in either one or other of the two typographic cases (e.g., `upper-yflrb', or `UPPER-yflrb'). Relatively short decision latencies accompanied by relatively low error rates occurred when targets were preceded by congruent within-attribute primes. Incongruent priming led to slower responses with higher error rates. Similar effects were obtained with name-priming of case-decisions although, in comparison to within-attribute priming, these occurred after longer prime pre-exposures. Case-priming effects upon name-decisions were obtained for simultaneous as well as pre-exposed primes, however, congruent as well as incongruent case-priming led to relatively slow decision latencies and higher error rates. Combined congruent case and name information speeded case-decisions in comparison to congruent case information alone. However the converse did not occur; increase in case-decision latency with incongruent case and name information combined was no greater than with incongruent case information alone. It has been argued that the results are consistent with models which propose that input is initially subject to encoding where 'activation' may spread automatically among interconnected verbal or nonverbal representations. In particular, this could partly account for speeded responses obtained with congruent primes. Relatively shorter decision latencies can also be attributed to subsequent decision processes and the generation of responses. The results also suggest that relatively longer latencies could arise from competing incompatible responses having to be suppressed. It has been further argued that relative speed of processing different stimulus attributes and the form of experimental task can be major determinants in the detection of contextual effects.

Video Interactive Guidance (VIG) is a goal focused, relationship based intervention, using video feedback, together with guidance from the practitioner, to support the client to reach their relational goals. VIG can be accessed by a range of individuals who are seeking support to improve their relationships, such as teachers, teaching assistants, parents, foster carers and adoptive parents. This study focuses on VIG as used with parents. VIG is an intervention which is growing in reputation as an effective method in promoting secure relationships between parents and children (Fukkink, 2008; NICE Guidance, 2012). Educational Psychologists are among a range of professionals who are now widely using VIG to promote positive relationships for parents and their children within the community context. In view of the agenda in Health, Social Care and Education to employ evidence based practice (Swinkels, 2002; Frederickson, 2002; Slavin, 2008, Axford, 2012), there is a clear need to explore the effectiveness of VIG when used with parents. This research adopted a case study design with parents who have engaged with a VIG intervention. The study utilizes qualitative methodologies across two phases of semi structured interview and video elicitation interviews to explore the perceived impact of VIG for parents and to explain the underlying mechanisms of how VIG brings about change for parents. The findings suggest that VIG is effective in facilitating a range of perceived outcomes for parents, including more attuned relationships and increased attachment with their child and personal development through increased levels of self-reflection and positivity. In addition, the findings offer evidence to support mediated learning theory and cognitive dissonance theory, specifically relating to video self-confrontation as underlying theoretical mechanisms to explain how VIG facilitates change for parents during the shared review.

Imaginary companions (ICs) are a relatively common feature of childhood, yet the views of parents regarding their children's creation of and engagement with ICs are relatively unexplored. This study explored the attitudes of parents towards ICs and the factors that relate to variation in views. This study is comprised of two phases. Phase 1 examined the views of mothers and fathers of primary school aged children using a self-completion questionnaire. 228 mothers and 31 fathers participated. Of these 259 parents, 63 had a child with a current or previous IC and 196 had a child without an IC. Phase 2 further examined the views of 12 mothers who had all experienced the phenomenon with their children, using semi-structured interviews. Results indicated that in general, parents held mainly positive or neutral views of ICs. They perceived there to be both advantages and disadvantages for their child, they had some concerns, and would be most inclined to ignore the behaviour. Context was found to also relate to the views of parents, and they would be more inclined to join in with the pretence in private than in public. Experience of ICs was associated with the views of parents, and parents with experience of ICs consistently reported more positive views for all attitudes measured. Child age was also found to impact on the views of parents, who were all less accepting of their children's ICs with increasing child age. It was hypothesised that parents' views may therefore play a part in older children keeping their ICs a secret from others. Furthermore, religious affiliation was also found to result in some variation in parent views. Mothers interviewed all expressed positive views of their children's IC, identifying a number of developmental benefits afforded to the child and identifying their experience to have been positive, thus positively shaping their views of ICs. Their positive views were however found to be conditional upon a number of factors, including the age of the child, the IC being used appropriately, and there being no negative social impact. Whilst the mothers had few concerns for young children with ICs, their concern was found to grow with increasing child age and the prospect of the IC not disappearing after middle childhood. The implications of the study for educational psychology, education and childcare professionals are discussed.

The thesis presents empirical studies and reviews that support a shift from traditional classroom practices in the Primary school to those based in a teacher-child partnership developed through negotiation. The opening Chapter looks at the ontology of the contemporary classroom of the Primary school. It holds that reasons for the presence of largely directive practices can be found in teachers background and training and in society's dependent model of childhood. This focus is continued in Chapter Two in respect to research into motivational processes. Chapter Three presents two empirical studies looking at the nature of the directive classroom and the types of strategies that children use to cope with this phenomena. In Chapter Four negotiation is examined across a variety of domains, developing in Chapter Five a model of a negotiating classroom and examining the extent to which it can be said that children negotiate. Chapter Six presents three studies concerned with children's negotiating behaviour, the detailed nature of child-teacher classroom negotiating interaction and a sociometric perspective examining how children prefer to organize themselves. Study Six presents transcripts of negotiations between teacher and child with interpretive commentary. Chapter Seven follows a class examining the effects on children's academic performance while moving from a directive to a negotiating environment. Chapter Eight presents a study combining three classroom components to create eight classroom environments. It highlights poor independent teacherchild agreement on the elements within the classroom organization that produce the best / worst match on different criteria. It also outlines data indicating poor agreement between In-situ and later questionnaire data collection methods. Chapter Nine suggests that individuality of the child is a persistent theme throughout, particularly in types of curricular interaction and behaviour and that a movement is needed toward developing the negotiating philosophy into traditional classrooms.

This research was concerned with exploring the views of children and young people with a visual impairment (CYPVI) about their experiences and perceptions of social inclusion in secondary mainstream settings in England. It also targeted parents and key professionals working with and around CYPVI in their school setting. The challenge for CYPVI in ‘becoming social and communicative’, particularly for those with the most limited vision, is well documented and it has been suggested that these young people are socially isolated in mainstream settings. The lifelong benefits that arise from successful social inclusion have also been reported, yet there exists a paucity of research regarding the socio-emotional experiences of CYPVI in mainstream settings, particularly those of a secondary age. The current study, conducted by a Trainee Educational Psychologist, who was herself visually impaired, adopted a qualitative methodology. Semi-structured interviews were used with 12 young people, with a severe visual impairment, drawn from five London Boroughs; short questionnaires were used to elicit parents’ and key professionals’ perspectives. Thematic analysis was conducted on the data and eight main themes identified which were interpreted and presented within a conceptual analysis framework. Although limited generalisability, owing to small sample size, was acknowledged, the findings indicate that CYPVI face many potential challenges to their successful social inclusion, particularly during the period of adolescence. Implications of the findings for future practice are discussed; the consideration given to the role of Educational Psychologists in understanding and supporting CYPVI was privileged.

Background. There is growing recognition of the impact of sensory difficulties in autism. However, traditional ‘sensory integration therapies’ lack empirical support and behaviour-based measures may misrepresent some sensory experiences in autism, meaning that sensory atypicalities are poorly understood and supported. There is therefore a need for a new self-regulatory approach to understanding and managing sensory experiences, which is consistent with theory, and draws upon self-reports of individuals with autism. Aims. 1) To expand the evidence base of self-reports of sensory experiences of adolescents with autism. 2) To evaluate the effectiveness of a new 8-week CBT-based group intervention for self-regulation of sensory experiences. Methods. Twelve adolescents aged 11 to 16 years with diagnoses of autism and IQs above 70, from one mainstream secondary school completed the study. A randomised controlled trial (RCT) design was used. To address Aim 1, self-reports were elicited pre-intervention, in a semi-structured interview and analysed thematically. To address Aim 2, quantitative measures of sensory behaviours, anxiety and repetitive behaviours were taken at baseline, post-intervention and follow-up, together with qualitative interview data from experimental groups and parents, post-intervention. Results. Aim 1) Thematic analysis revealed 5 main themes: ‘need for control’, ‘resonance with stimulus affects reactivity’, ‘self in-relation-to others’, ‘barriers to coping relate to consciousness’, and ‘features of adaptive coping strategies’. Aim 2) Quantitative analysis revealed no significant intervention effects, although qualitative reports indicated the intervention raised meta-conscious awareness of sensory experiences, expression and use of language, sense of self in-relation-to others, and adolescents’ use of new coping behaviours. Conclusion. Striking qualitative data suggest the intervention was effective in raising meta-conscious awareness and self-regulation. Results indicate the future need for larger sample sizes, and for the development of more sensitive and valid sensory measures. Implications for EPs include facilitating supportive group dynamics, and developing parent and staff understanding.

This study explores the hypothesis that there are particular difficulties for secondary school students with specific developmental language disorder (SDLD) in understanding contextual, pragmatic meaning in relation to non pragmatic (semantic) meaning. It compares sixty-four SDLD students, aged between twelve and fourteen years, with chronolgical-age-matched and language-age-matched non-language impaired students. Language age is measured by a test of non-pragmatic meaning comprehension. Incorporating the development of new procedures, the study examines the students' comprehension of two types of ambiguity where the context determines the speaker's intention: inconsistent messages of emotion and multiple meanings in context. These types of ambiguity are evident in a range of communicative intent, for example, to express sarcasm, idiomatic expression, deceipt and humour. Preliminary study into adolescent language suggests that, at this age, there is a particular expectation for students to be able to understand these kinds of communication, both in the classroom and socially. The study provides much evidence to support its central hypothesis: SDLD students made significantly fewer pragmatic responses than both comparison groups. The way students responded suggested two types of pragmatic analysis, one concerning plausibility judgment and a second concerning awareness of multiple reference and detection of miscomprehension. Nonlanguage- impaired children were significantly more able to use these types of analysis, for example, to rule out literal interpretations when they did not know the contextually implied meaning. Some evidence is provided to suggest that these analyses are underpinned by skills in both the metacommunicative and linguistic domains. The study's findings have several implcations for research and practice. The are serious implications, for example, for diagnostic assessment, in the light of the literature survey revealing that those currently available do not assess pragmatic meaning comprehension. The findings further provide a basis to challenge a view that disorders in the semantic and pragmatic domains necessarily co-occur, as reflected in the diagnostic category semanti-pragmatic disorder.