Scholars of the Late Pleistocene in Southern Africa have recently sought to develop models explaining long-term variation between Middle Stone Age and Late Stone Age assemblages in terms of variability between “macrolithic” vs. “microlithic” toolmaking systems associated with shifts in hunter-gatherer ecology and land use patterns. While it has often proven extremely difficult to actually test many models, recently developed methods allow us to do so in novel ways. In this dissertation, I use new archaeological data from excavations of two sites in the Namib Desert, as well as new approaches to sourcing lithic artifacts to examine the hypothesis that contrasts between terminal Pleistocene (ca. 15-20 ka BP) and early Holocene (ca. 6-12 ka BP) occupation phases at the two sites represent adaptive responses primarily driven by changes in fluvial regimes and the resource productivity of riparian corridors. Analyzing the lithic assemblage compositions and locating probable source areas for raw materials suggests that terminal Pleistocene groups likely centered land use strategies more toward upland areas east of the study sites and periodically followed broad riparian corridors into the desert itself. Early Holocene groups expanded their ranges and more intensively targeted resources on the open desert plains, dunes, and beaches of the coastal lowlands. My results suggest environmental change may be partially responsible for driving this shift, but new data and methodological tools are needed to address factors like fluctuations in regional population size that may have been driving shifts in the late Pleistocene record of this unique region of Southern Africa.

The Cache Valley Shoshone are the survivors of the Bear River Massacre, where a battle between a group of US. volunteer troops from California and a Shoshone village degenerated into the worst Indian massacre in US. history, resulting in the deaths of over 200 Shoshones. The massacre occurred due to increasing tensions over land use between the Shoshones and the Mormon settlers. Following the massacre, the Shoshones attempted settling in several different locations in Box Elder County, eventually finding a home in Washakie, Utah. However, the LDS Church sold the land where the city of Washakie sat, forcing the Shoshones to adapt quickly. Much of our knowledge of the massacre stems from either white American sources or the oral histories that circulate among one Shoshone family group. This leaves the information incomplete. Adding the voices of more individuals expands our knowledge of the massacre itself and the adaptations the Shoshones continue to make in order to survive.

This study investigates the role of regional networks for economic development (RENEDs) in regions suffering from industrial dislocation. It proposes that RENEDs significantly affect regional development. It also investigates the aspects of RENEDs that promote interorganisational collaboration on projects, and examines how RENEDs foster and manage them. The research uses a case study approach, and presents two regions suffering from the decline of their main economic source. These regions are the Hunter region of New South Wales (Australia) and the Le??n province of Castilla Y Le??n (Spain). A pilot study and a survey were conducted in both regions. Three types of analysis were applied: network, statistical and qualitative. The research method makes it possible to replicate research and develop a theory of regional networks for economic development. The results show that success of RENEDs is determined by capital investment generated by the projects, their influence in changing the economic bases of the regions, and the improvement to regional network capital. This study found that frequency of communication is a structural element that significantly affects the production of projects. However, other variables affect projects, such as external pressures from globalisation, government policies and ideologies, and internal constraints from the public, private and civic sectors. This thesis concludes that RENEDs have an important role in regional planning through the formulation of specific projects that target economic disparity. RENEDs represent a system of relationship that enrich the network capital of the regions as an important asset for their future.

An ecological study of Emydura macquarii macquarii in the south-east region of Australia was conducted between October 1995 and March 1998. E. m. macquarii is an abundant and widespread species of short-necked turtle that is highly variable in morphology and related life history attributes. No study in Australia had previously looked at geographic variation in biological traits in freshwater turtles, hence the level of variation in E. m. macquarii had been poorly documented. The principal aims of this study were to investigate the plasticity of life history traits across populations of E. m. macquarii and to speculate on possible causes. A more intensive study was also conducted on a rare and suspected declining population of E. m. macquarii in the Nepean River to determine whether relevant management and conservation measures; were required. The study involved comparing various life history attributes between five populations of E. m. macquarii (Brisbane River, Macleay River, Hunter River, Nepean River and Murray River). The populations were specifically chosen to account for the range of variation in body size within this subspecies. Body size (maximum size, size at maturity, growth rates), population structures (sex ratios, age and size structures), reproductive traits (clutch mass, clutch size, egg size, egg content, etc.) and other attributes were collected for each population. Patterns of life history traits, both within and among populations, were explored so that causes of variation could be sought. Geographic variation in Body Size and other Related Life History Traits Body size in E. m. macquarii differed markedly between populations. Females ranged in maximum sizes (carapace length) of 180 mm in the Macleay River to over 300 mm in the Murray River. E. m. macquarii was sexually dimorphic across all populations with females larger than males in all cases. Maximum body size was positively related to the size at which a turtle matures. The size at maturity in turn was positively related to juvenile growth rates. Age was a more important factor for males in terms of timing of maturity whereas in females it was body size. Morphological variation was not only great between populations, but also within populations. Maximum body size was unrelated to latitude; hence it was inferred that habitat productivity had the most important influence on geographic variation in body size. Population structures also differed between populations. Sex ratios did not differ in the Brisbane, Macleay and Murray Rivers. However, a male bias was present in the Nepean River population and a female bias in the Hunter River. Juveniles were scarce in the Brisbane and Macleay Rivers but numerous in the Nepean and Hunter Rivers. Geographic Variation in Reproduction There was large variation in reproductive traits across populations of E. m. macquarii. Nesting season began as early as mid-September in the Brisbane River and as late as December in the Hunter River, and continued until early January. Populations in the Hunter and Murray Rivers are likely to produce only one clutch per season while populations from the Macleay and Nepean Rivers can produce two, and on some occasions, three clutches annually. The majority of females would appear to reproduce every year. Clutch mass, clutch size, and egg size varied greatly both within and among populations. A large proportion of variation in reproductive traits was due to the effects of body size. E. m. macquarii from large-bodied populations such as in the Brisbane and Murray Rivers produced bigger eggs than small-bodied populations. Within a population, clutch mass, clutch size, and egg size were all correlated with body size, except the Nepean River. The variability of egg size was smaller in large-bodied populations where egg size was more constant. Not all variation in reproductive traits was due to body size. Some of this variation was due to annual differences within a population. Reproductive traits within a population are relatively plastic, most likely a result of changing environmental conditions. Another source is the trade-off between egg size and clutch size. A negative relationship was found between egg size and clutch size (except the Brisbane River). Reproductive variation was also influenced by latitudinal effects. Turtles at lower latitudes produces more clutches, relatively smaller clutch sizes, clutch mass and larger eggs than populations at higher latitudes. Annual reproductive output is greater in tropical populations because they can produce more clutches per year in an extended breeding season. Eggs that were incubated at warmer temperatures hatched faster and produced smaller hatchlings. Incubation temperatures above 30�C increased egg mortality and hatchling deformities, suggesting this is above the optimum developmental temperature for E. m. macquarii. Hatchling size was positively related to egg size, hence hatchling sizes was on average larger in the Murray and Brisbane rivers. However, population differences remained in hatchling size after adjustments were made for egg size. For example, hatchlings from the Hunter River were smaller than those from the Macleay River despite the egg size being the same. These differences were most likely due to the shorter incubation periods of hatchlings from the Hunter River. Nepean River The Nepean River population of E. m. macquarii is at the southern coastal limit of its range. This is a locally rare population, which is believed to be declining. This study aimed at determining the distribution, abundance, and population dynamics to assess whether any conservation management actions were required. E. m. macquarii in the Nepean River was mainly concentrated between Penrith and Nortons Basin, although even here it was found at a very low density (10.6 - 12.1 per hectare). The largest male caught was 227 mm while the largest female was 260.4 mm. Males generally mature between 140 - 150 mm in carapace length and at four or five years of age. Females mature at 185 -195 mm and at six to seven years of age. Compared with other populations of E. macquarii, Nepean River turtles grow rapidly, mature quickly, are dominated by juveniles, have a male bias and have a high reproductive output. Far from being a population on the decline, the life history traits suggest a population that is young and expanding. There are considered to be two possible scenarios as to why the Nepean River population is at such a low density when it appears to be thriving. The first scenario is that the distribution of the population on the edge of its range may mean that a small and fluctuating population size may be a natural feature due to sub-optimal environmental conditions. A second scenario is that the population in the Nepean River has only recently become established from dumped pet turtles.

Recently documented ice patch sites in the southwest Yukon are ideal for evaluating precontact hunter-gatherer land-use patterns in the western subarctic. Located in the alpine of the mountainous regions of the boreal forest, ice patches are associated with well preserved hunting equipment, caribou (Rangifer tarandus) dung and an abundance of faunal remains dating to over 8000 years ago. However, current models are inadequate for explaining caribou hunting at ice patches as they tend to emphasize large-scale communal hunts associated with latitudinal movements of caribou. Much less is known about the alititudinal movment of caribou and the associated hunting forays to ice patches in the alpine. Based on literature from caribou biology an altitudinal hunting model is proposed. During summer months caribou are predictable in their use of ice patches for relief from insect harassment. Pollen dated from caribou dung frozen in organic layers from the Granger (JdUt-1) and Friday Creek (JcUu-1) ice patches was analysed and compared to pollen assemblages from modern caribou dung to test whether ancient caribou were using these locations during summer months. The multivariate statistical technique, Nonmetric Mutlidimensional Scaling shows that ancient pollen assemblages are unlike any modern dung. Results indicate that pollen derived from dung is complex and various temporal transformations and taphonomic factors such as: (i) the use of modern analogue samples; (ii) changes in phenology; (iii) mode of pollination and; (iv) caribou feeding strategies must be understood before making interpretations on seasonality from dung pollen. I propose that a qualitative model of seasonal pollen signatures also be used to evaluate ancient pollen spectra, especially when there is no modern analogue. Regardless of these factors, the identification of a diversity of forbs and the presence of insect-pollinated taxa such as Polemonium and Epilobium suggest that some of the dung was deposited by caribou in the summer. Ancient hunters, knowing that caribou aggregate in mixed herds on ice patches in summer months, took advantage of this behaviour. Hunting equipment found on ice patches indicates that atlatls (8360± 60 to 1250± 40 yrs BP) and bow and arrows (1300 ± 70 to 90 ± 40 yrs BP) and hunting blinds were part of the ice hunting strategy. Faunal analysis suggests caribou was the primary game animal hunted at ice patches, although sheep (Ovis dalli) may have been important at some locations. Developing an altitudinal migration model provides a fuller picture of caribou hunting at alpine locations in the southwest Yukon and assists in understanding Holocene precontact hunting and land-use patterns in the western subarctic.

The type of commentary a narrative is able to make is fully dependant on the type of narrator who is relating it. The visual elements present in a film are the true narrational forces which guide it. The presence of the camera, the use of lighting, the architecture, and the objects present in the film each have their own meaning. These elements come together to make a greater commentary than the dialogue. How these meanings interact with each other is what defines what type of narrator is present in the film. By analyzing what type of narrator is relating the story it is possible to examine what commentary the film is able to make. Mike Nichols? 1967 film The Graduate and Terry Gilliam?s 1998 film adaptation of Hunter S. Thompson?s 1971 literary work Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas make commentaries that act as bookends for the ideals of the youth culture during the late 1960?s. Where as The Graduate is condemning the shining emptiness of 1967 suburban California society which its narrator inhabits, Fear and Loathing?s narrator is depicting the twisted abomination which grew within the emptiness of that society during those four years. The fact that Gilliam?s adaptation came 27 years after the source material was created allows for an even more specific translation of Thompson?s message. The Graduate is looking towards the unknown future where as Fear and Loathing is look backwards at the results. The Graduate is commenting on the current situation and looking forwards where as Fear and Loathing is looking backwards to see what has happened in the interim. It is this difference that forces the type of narration and the visual style employed by the films to be diametrically opposed.

Ontogenetic patterns in postcranial robusticity are analysed in the skeletons of eighty-two juvenile Later Stone Age hunter-gatherers with estimated ages at death ranging from infancy to late adolescence. Robusticity is quantified from cross-sectional geometric properties of diaphyses at sixteen sites throughout the skeleton, using radiography and casting methods. Skeletal growth profiles for strength measures are analysed with locally-weighted regression and additional curve fitting to evaluate developmental trajectories. Ethnographic accounts of infancy and childhood in modern Ju/'hoansi (Khoesan) communities provide a culturally-relevant interpretive framework for evaluating skeletal correlates of behaviour. This research demonstrates that bone strength properties can be functionally linked to behaviour among juveniles toward the reconstruction of patterns of physical activity among prehistoric children. Postcranial strength measures vary predictably with age such that developmental patterns and timing in appositional growth can be assessed reliably. The onset of walking among Later Stone Age juveniles is evident by two years of age from proportional lower to upper limb strength measures. The lower limb continues to adapt to increasing loading demands especially in response to torsional forces, and bending in the medio-lateral plane; biomechanical shape measures illustrate the gradual development of the femoral pilaster. Individual humeral strength is symmetrical with respect to the orientation maximal bending forces experienced throughout development, but the magnitude of the functional adaptive response is greater, on average, in the right limb with more than 70% of the sample over the age of six displaying right-side dominance. Humeral asymmetry and side dominance does not emerge until late childhood, and the majority of arm strength is accrued during adolescence, relative to the sex-combined mean values for Later Stone Age adults. Evidence for sexual dimorphism in upper limb properties is evident by late adolescence whereas sex-based patterns of mobility reflected in lower limb strength have yet to emerge. These results illustrate the developmental patterns that underlie postcranial markers of subsistence activities in Later Stone Age hunter-gatherers.

School districts across the nation are engaged in an ongoing attempt to bring about change. Educational researchers strive to initiate change in the classroom with students as well as the teachers of these students. The evaluation of a change effort is a key element in any implementation model; as the actual training and development strategies used to induce change need to be consistently refined. The change effort studied was an effort to implement Madeline Hunter's Instructional Theory Into Practice (referred to as ITIP). The study evaluated the effectiveness of this change effort over time. The evaluation determined the extent to which intended behavioral outcomes of five dimensions (key elements in the 11113 model) were realized initially and four years after treatment. Because the behaviors of the treatment teachers and control group teachers were crucial to the study, the research design collected data by videotaping teaching episodes of the sample group pre- and post-treatment. These episodes were assessed for their pretreatment teaching behaviors and post-treatment teaching behaviors . In addition, the research design collected data by videotape and assessed the teaching behaviors four years after the initial training. In the same manner, the control group's teaching behaviors were assessed. An analysis of the study's treatment group concerns was done as they evolved through the change stages, as hypothesized by Dr. Frances F. Fuller (Fuller, 1969). This change analysis and behavioral assessment led to additional evidence for the evaluation of the effectiveness of the change effort in question. This study showed that, from the beginning, a change effort needs to be carefully and clearly defined so that everyone involved understands it well and everyone shares the same definition. The study found that the initial training did change teaching behaviors in four of the five areas in question. However, four years after the initial training, it was found that there was significant regression in the skills learned from the initial training sessions. Specifically, it was the areas that showed significant growth in the initial training that regressed four years later. These behaviors though, even after regressing after four years, were significantly displayed to a greater degree in each of the individual's teaching behaviors when compared to individuals who had no formal training at all. Therefore, it must be concluded that the formal training made a difference in the teaching behaviors of those who participated in the change effort design, but not to the degree that was necessary for the dimensions to become part of each individuals' teaching behavior over the long term. Change effort designs of the future must account for the time necessary for change to occur and promote follow up activities until a significant amount of time for this follow up has occurred. / Graduation date: 1991

Ontogenetic patterns in postcranial robusticity are analysed in the skeletons of eighty-two juvenile Later Stone Age hunter-gatherers with estimated ages at death ranging from infancy to late adolescence. Robusticity is quantified from cross-sectional geometric properties of diaphyses at sixteen sites throughout the skeleton, using radiography and casting methods. Skeletal growth profiles for strength measures are analysed with locally-weighted regression and additional curve fitting to evaluate developmental trajectories. Ethnographic accounts of infancy and childhood in modern Ju/'hoansi (Khoesan) communities provide a culturally-relevant interpretive framework for evaluating skeletal correlates of behaviour. This research demonstrates that bone strength properties can be functionally linked to behaviour among juveniles toward the reconstruction of patterns of physical activity among prehistoric children. Postcranial strength measures vary predictably with age such that developmental patterns and timing in appositional growth can be assessed reliably. The onset of walking among Later Stone Age juveniles is evident by two years of age from proportional lower to upper limb strength measures. The lower limb continues to adapt to increasing loading demands especially in response to torsional forces, and bending in the medio-lateral plane; biomechanical shape measures illustrate the gradual development of the femoral pilaster. Individual humeral strength is symmetrical with respect to the orientation maximal bending forces experienced throughout development, but the magnitude of the functional adaptive response is greater, on average, in the right limb with more than 70% of the sample over the age of six displaying right-side dominance. Humeral asymmetry and side dominance does not emerge until late childhood, and the majority of arm strength is accrued during adolescence, relative to the sex-combined mean values for Later Stone Age adults. Evidence for sexual dimorphism in upper limb properties is evident by late adolescence whereas sex-based patterns of mobility reflected in lower limb strength have yet to emerge. These results illustrate the developmental patterns that underlie postcranial markers of subsistence activities in Later Stone Age hunter-gatherers.

Thesis (M.A.)--Trinity International University, 2001. / Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 152-159).