This study examines the extent to which Responsibility to Protect (R2P) principles are embedded in the African Union’s interventionist framework. The AU has been heralded as a trailblazer of R2P, enshrining its attendant principles in the Union’s 2000 Constitutive Act, five years before the emerging norm’s adoption by world leaders at the 2005 World Summit. However, in the case of the recent humanitarian crisis in Libya, and the UN Security Council’s subsequent intervention during 2011, the AU failed to invoke R2P, jettisoning Article 4(h) of its own Constitutive Act and insisting on a negotiated solution to the crisis. This position placed the Union on a collision course with several other regional organisations, notably the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation which assumed a leading role in the implementation of the UNSC mandate to intervene. The AU’s actions also placed into question the rhetoric-reality nexus of its responsibility to protect. At issue is thus the matter of norm localisation, and whether lack thereof and/or other challenges are inhibiting consolidation of R2P within the AU’s security culture. The study therefore traces the institutionalisation of the guiding tenets of R2P within the evolving AU Peace and Security Architecture, and investigates the operationalisation thereof (arguably the most contentious dimension to the global discourse on R2P) in the case of the 2011 UNSC intervention in Libya. / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / Political Sciences / Unrestricted

This thesis deals with the future of the concept of Responsibility to Protect (R2P) and focuses on prospects of the concept after the conflicts in Libya and Syria. Concept of R2P was developed in 2001 as a reaction to the genocide in Rwanda and Srebrenica and attempts to bring an answer to the question, how to react in the situation when a sovereign state fails to protect its population against crimes under international law. In this thesis I examine the application of the concept in Libya and reasons why it was not applied to a similar situation in Syria. I also deal with the subsequent debate which was held on the international stage after experience with these conflicts and I analyse proposals, which were brought into this debate focusing on how to move the concept forward or modify it. I therefore examine the Brazilian concept of the Responsibility while Protecting (RwP), the question of adoption of guidelines for the intervention according to the R2P, the topic of monitoring and accountability of the intervening state, the Responsibility not to veto and the issue of limiting the use of veto in UN Security Council, the possibility of involvement of UN General Assembly in the R2P, the question of prevention and the topic of unilateral non-forcible measures. The unilateral non- forcible measures,...

Since the early 2000s, the European Union evolved a policy of externalization of management of migration into its territory. The externalization policy makes migrant transit countries neighboring the EU a frontier of EU migration control. As a significant jumping-off point of the Central Mediterranean Route for EU-bound migrants, and given its weak state structure, Libya is a fundamental component of the EU externalization policy. In enforcing the EU externalization policy through EU-funded and supported interception and detention of EUbound migrants, Libya's authorities have systematically abused migrants. This study examined the responsibility of the European Union for the abuses of migrants in Libya. The study relied on the theory of state responsibility to argue that the EU is responsible for the abuses of migrants by Libyan authorities pursuant to the implementation of the EU externalization policy. This study is a single case study that relied on content analysis to make inferences from the corpus of documents retrieved mainly from EU institutions and international human rights organizations' reports. The result shows that the EU relied on cooperation agreements like the Memorandum of Understanding 2017 and the Malta Declaration 2017 to train Libyan Coastal security, provide logistics, share information on migrants’ boats, and fund the interception, detention, and abuse of thousands of migrants by Libyan authorities. Considering the weak state institutions in Libya, the abuse of migrants in Libya, and the responsibility of the EU to immigrants under its own laws and international conventions, the study recommends that the European Union reassess its engagement with Libya in the area of migrants’ interception and detention, with a view to providing for migrants detention in the EU where their rights are more recognized.

Since the 1970s there has been rapid expansion of higher education provision in Libya and also concerns about quality versus quantity of education amid calls to reform higher education in Libya. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the current pedagogic approaches of geography teaching in Libyan universities. This information has been obtained by seeking the perceptions and attitudes through questionnaires of university teachers and students from eight Libyan higher education institutions, representing a range of locations and types of institution. A comparison was also made to UK geography teaching, using published information to indicate possible alternative approaches. The results from students were to a large extent consistent with the results of teachers, although there were some differences between the newly established institutions and the others. Respondents showed dissatisfaction towards many issues related to the teaching of geography at this level, notably the lack of specialized degrees; the inclusion of non-geography modules in courses; the integration of environmental issues within the curriculum; educational resources; the current conditions of laboratories; the teaching methods used by teachers; lecture presentation methods; the illustrative aids used by teachers; and the current fieldwork strategy. This study highlights the need for revision of current pedagogic approaches to geography teaching in Libyan universities, in which the UK¿s model may be a useful guide. / General People¿s Committee for Higher Education of Libya

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This study is an examination and comparison of the manner in which Nigeria, Iran and Libya used oil revenue for their economic development. The research methodology was the case study approach, utilizing statistical time series data, as well as a historical profile of each country's income and expenditure accounts. As a prelude to the oil injection, the pre-oil revenue economy, the history of the oil industry, and the previously implemented development plans of each of these nations is surveyed. The impact of the oil revenues on the standard of living and the non-oil sectors of these economies is examined. The paper concludes with projections concerning each country's ability to continue to promote economic development when its exhaustible oil reserves runs out.

In Libya salinization of land and ground water is a key problem. A. saligna is one species that offers potential for growth under these conditions. Experiments were undertaken to accelerate the germination of Acacia seeds, and various pre-treatment methods were assayed. Boiling water treatment, mechanical scarification and acid improved germination and germination rate. Sowing A. saligna seeds at 30 mm depth gave greatest seedling growth from large and medium seeds whereas 20 mm was more suitable for small seeds. This study aimed to improve the establishment of Acacia saligna irrigated with saline water, plants were grown for seven weeks under greenhouse or field conditions in (Libya) either sand or soil salinized with varying applications of NaCl. Irrigation with NaCl significantly decreased plant survival and growth and concentration of Ca, Na, K, Fe and P ions in plants with 0.5 M or 1.0 M NaCl. The experiments were repeated using a naturally occurring soil amendment called ‘Zander’. Seeds of A. saligna were grown for seven weeks in both greenhouse and field trials as before but with the addition of Zander and NaCl. Zander improved plant survival and growth with salinity and increased the elements in plants (Ca, Na, K, Fe and P). Field experiments were conducted to assess the effects of saline irrigation with 1.0 M NaCl and extra water added to 0% or 10% Zander on survival and growth, consequently, seedling growth significantly decreased with increase in soil salinity. Survival and growth increased with increase in extra water. The additional irrigation water caused an increase in the uptake of Ca++ and increased the Ca++/Na+ and K+/Na+ ratio. Zander did not appear to reduce net uptake of Na+ and its transport to shoot tissues. Mg++, P, K+ and Ca++ content significantly decreased in plants in response to salinity. Possible mechanisms to avoid Na+ toxicity in A. saligna in response to salinity included increasing the supply of Ca++. Extra Ca++ applied into the medium with and without salt increased survival and growth even in the absence of Zander. Calcium increased uptake of Ca++ and increased Ca++/Na+ and K+/Na+ ratio.

Since the 1970s there has been rapid expansion of higher education provision in Libya and also concerns about quality versus quantity of education amid calls to reform higher education in Libya. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the current pedagogic approaches of geography teaching in Libyan universities. This information has been obtained by seeking the perceptions and attitudes through questionnaires of university teachers and students from eight Libyan higher education institutions, representing a range of locations and types of institution. A comparison was also made to UK geography teaching, using published information to indicate possible alternative approaches. The results from students were to a large extent consistent with the results of teachers, although there were some differences between the newly established institutions and the others. Respondents showed dissatisfaction towards many issues related to the teaching of geography at this level, notably the lack of specialized degrees; the inclusion of non-geography modules in courses; the integration of environmental issues within the curriculum; educational resources; the current conditions of laboratories; the teaching methods used by teachers; lecture presentation methods; the illustrative aids used by teachers; and the current fieldwork strategy. This study highlights the need for revision of current pedagogic approaches to geography teaching in Libyan universities, in which the UK's model may be a useful guide.

Forest areas are particularly susceptible to fires, which are often manmade. Too-frequent fires are likely to adversely affect the soil properties as well as vegetation composition, and possibly lead to soil erosion and desertification. One of the most fire affected forest regions in the world is the Mediterranean. Libya, in the Mediterranean region, has soils that are considered to be arid except in a small area called Aljabal Alakhdar (Green mountain), which is the geographic area covered by this study. It is the wettest part of Libya, and has an extensive forest and many agricultural crops. Like other forests in the Mediterranean it has suffered extreme degradation. This is mainly due to people removing fire wood, or sometimes converting forested areas to agricultural use, as well as fires which may alter several soil chemical and physical properties. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effects of fires on the physical and chemical properties of soil of Aljabal Alakhdar forest in the north-east of Libya. The physical and chemical properties of soil following fire in two geographic areas have been determined, with those subjected to the fire compared to those in adjacent unburned areas in one coastal and one mountain site. Physical properties studied were: soil particle size, soil water content, soil porosity and soil particle density; and chemical properties studied were: soil electrical conductivity (EC), soil pH, soluble and exchangeable Na, K, Ca and Mg, cation exchange capacity (CEC), soluble Cl, CO3 and HCO3, SO4, organic matter, total N and total P. For the first time in Libyan soils, the effect of burning on the magnetic susceptibility properties of soils was also tested. The results showed that except for the soil water content and magnetic susceptibility, fire has not had a clear effect on the soils' physical properties, while there has been a strong impact of fire on most of the studied chemical properties. These results have been used to create an index of burning for such soils in each of the geographic areas, as a step towards creating a model which will enable a subset of soil parameters to be used to estimate how recently a site was burned, as well as defining fire severity at a site.