The impact of family differentiation (cohesion and enmeshment), as measured by the Colorado Self-Report of Family Functioning Inventory, on ego identity development (exploration and commitment), as measured by the Ego Identity Process Questionnaire, was examined. This study also examined the impact of family differentiation on psychological well-being, both directly and as mediated by ego identity development. The psychological well-being variables were life satisfaction, measured by the Satisfaction with Life Scale; depression, measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D); and state anxiety, measured by a short form of the state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI-6). The research questions were: 1) Do cohesion and enmeshment influence commitment and exploration? 2) Do cohesion and enmeshment influence psychological well-being (anxiety, depression, and life satisfaction)? 3) Do these findings differ between non-Hispanic white participants and Hispanic participants of any race? Participants were undergraduate college students at two public universities in the southeastern United States. The total sample size was n = 563. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine the hypothesized relationships. This study also examined the mediating role of identity formation variables drawn from the ego identity development paradigm in cross-cultural context. Results show that, consistent with the study predictions, cohesion had significant positive effects on commitment and life satisfaction, and significant negative effects on depression and anxiety (both directly and as mediated by commitment). Also as predicted, commitment had a significant positive direct effect on life satisfaction, and significant negative direct effects on depression and anxiety. However, no effects were observed for enmeshment or exploration, and no differences were observed between the Hispanics and non-Hispanics. Implications for ego identity theory and family relations theory are discussed, as well as limitations of the study methodology and proposals for future research. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2014. / April 7, 2014. / Cohesion, Commitment, Enmeshment, Exploration, Family Differentiation, Identity / Includes bibliographical references. / Ronald L. Mullis, Professor Directing Dissertation; Tomi Gomory, University Representative; Ann Mullis, Committee Member; Lenore McWey, Committee Member.

Forgiveness plays a significant role in emotionally healthy marital and family relationships, dating relationships, friendships, and relationships in the workplace, among others. Research has suggested positive physical and mental effects associated with forgiving and negative effects associated with not forgiving. However, forgiveness intervention is in its incipient stage. Researchers are currently attempting to uncover various types and levels of forgiveness, as well as the different variables that affect the forgiveness process and the dispersion among effect sizes is great. Several questions remained unanswered to date: What type of forgiveness intervention is more effective, individual or group treatment, psychotherapeutic or psychoeducational approach, long-term or brief treatment, and under what circumstances and with what populations? What participant, contextual, and intervention process variables affect the forgiving process? This meta-analysis has attempted to answer some of these questions. The statement of the null hypothesis was as follows: Forgiveness intervention for adults, delivered via individual treatment, will be equal in effectiveness to forgiveness intervention, delivered in group treatment, as defined by statistically and clinically significant and meaningful effect sizes. This meta-analysis and research methods analysis included randomized (and 1 quasiexperimental) controlled trials of forgiveness interventions with individual (not couples) adults (18 years or older) forgiving a relational transgression. The exhaustive 15-year search from 1993 through January 2008 identified 18 studies, including 26 independent forgiveness treatments (26 subgroups), which met the research criteria. The fidelity of the data coding was assessed by 2 independent raters; the interrater reliability agreement was 0.96. Based on a comprehensive review of the forgiveness literature, four hypotheses were formulated: Hypothesis 1: Participants receiving forgiveness intervention, delivered via individual treatment, will not demonstrate equal forgiveness improvement as compared to forgiveness intervention, delivered in grouptreatment, as defined by clinically and statistically significant effect sizes and meaningful differences. Hypothesis 2: Participants receiving longer duration (6 or more hours) forgiveness intervention will demonstrate greater improved forgiveness than participants receiving shorter duration (less than 6 hours) forgiveness intervention, as defined by clinically and statistically significant effect sizes and meaningful differences. Hypothesis 3: Participants, with severe offenses, receiving forgiveness intervention will demonstrate greater improvement in forgiveness than participants, with less severe offenses, receiving forgiveness intervention, as defined by clinically and statistically significant effect sizes and meaningful differences. Hypothesis 4: Participants receiving forgiveness intervention, in which the sample consists of 100% females, will demonstrate greater forgiveness improvement than participants receiving forgiveness intervention, in which the sample consists of less than 100% females, as defined by clinically and statistically significant effect sizes and meaningful differences. The first hypothesis was confirmed. The combined forgiveness effect for individual treatments was a clinically and statistically significant large ES of 1.409, 95% CI: 0.664–2.154. For group treatments, the combined effect was a clinically and statistically significant, but small, ES of 0.296, 95% CI: 0.124–.468. The null was rejected. In support of the second hypothesis, long-term treatment duration (6 or more hours) showed a significant, moderate to large ES of 0.711, 95% CI: 0.433 - 0.990. Whereas, brief treatments (less than 6 hours) demonstrated a small nonsignificant combined ES of 0.064, 95% CI: -0.089–0.216. The meta-regression of duration of treatment (hours) for all 26 subgroups demonstrated a significant relationship of hours of intervention with forgiveness effect. Corroborating the third hypothesis, interventions in which participants experienced more severe offenses, demonstrated clinically and statistically significant larger forgiveness effect, ES 0.958, 95% CI: 0.609 – 1.308 than treatments in which the participants had experienced less severe offenses, which demonstrated a nonsignificant ES of 0.075, 95% CI: -0.053 – 0.203. The fourth hypothesis was also supported. The combined effect for all treatments with 100% female participants demonstrated a large clinically and statistically significant effect size, ES 1.284, 95% CI: 0.903–1.666 (These same interventions were led by 100% female leaders). Interventions with less than 100% female participants had a small to medium statistically significant forgiveness effect of 0.273, 95% CI: 0.055 – 0.491. The meta-analysis tentatively suggested other variables that moderate improvement in forgiveness. A psychotherapeutic model, used in individual and group treatment, showed a significant large effect size, ES 1.337, 95% CI: 0.898 - 1.777; the psychoeducational-experiential models, were used in secular and faith-based treatments group treatments. They demonstrated a significant medium combined effect size, ES 0.541, 95% CI: 0.211–0.872. Faith-based group treatments (psychoeducational models, with and without experiential elements) demonstrated a large significant ES of 0.789, 95% CI: 0.145 – 1.433. Interventions with 52% or more European Americans demonstrated a significant moderate to large ES of 0.668, 95% CI: 0.369–0.966; however, for all subgroups consisting of 51% or less European Americans, the demonstrated effect was small and nonsignificant, ES 0.045, 95% CI: -0.098 to 0.188. For religious affiliation (which was reported in only 12 of the 26 treatments), Christian denominations demonstrated a clinically and statistically significant moderate to large forgiveness effect, ES 0.629, 95% CI: 0.364–0.893. The following leader characteristics were analyzed: leaders not blind to the hypothesis demonstrated a significant medium effect, ES 0.504, 95% CI: 0.228–0.780; leaders with more than 8 hours of training on the model showed a clinically and statistically significant large effect, ES 0.840, 95% CI: 0.361–1.319; and leaders with 4 or more years of experience demonstrated a large significant forgiveness effect, ES 0.658, 95% CI: 0.313–1.002. Although there were numerous research method design limitations in the primary studies and wide dispersion among effect sizes in the meta-analysis, overall findings suggested forgiveness intervention (individual and group treatment) is beneficial to clients. Improvement in forgiveness was significantly moderated by specific participant, contextual, and process variables. Individual forgiveness treatment intervention was supported as more effective, than group treatment forgiveness, as demonstrated by meaningful differences and clinically and statistically significant effect sizes. The null hypothesis was rejected and all 4 hypotheses were supported. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Interdivisional Program of Marriage and the Family in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2008. / March 21, 2008. / Research Methods, Evidenced-based Practice, Outcome Measures' Leader Effectiveness, Severity of Offense, Duration, Leader Training, Therapeutic Approach, Forgiveness Models / Includes bibliographical references. / Christine A. Readdick, Professor Directing Dissertation; Bruce A. Thyer, Outside Committee Member; Robert E. Lee, Committee Member; Marsha L. Rehm, Committee Member.

Unprecedented growth in our aging population mandates a corresponding increase in the research base. African Americans and elders over the age of 75 years are particularly underrepresented in the social scientific literature. Because wisdom operates as a sort of compensating mechanism to the losses due to biology, it provides an effective framework for the study of optimal aging. The current study, designed to elicit wisdom stories from African American elders, further identified wisdom as an important positive aspect of any new paradigm of aging. Following initial contact, each of four African American elders over the age of 75 years was interviewed on two separate occasions using open-ended questions. Data were analyzed utilizing procedures for hueristic inquiry (Moustakas,1990a). Themes included Acceptance, Growth, and Interaction. Less direct means of transmission predominated, including modeling, mentoring, storytelling, listening, and observation. Specific processes facilitative of wisdom transmission emerged which will inform revisions in the existing paradigms on aging in clinical, research, and policy realms. These include maintenance of a mindset and perspective characterized by the qualities of acceptance, openmindedness, and compassion, a pronounced emphasis on continual growth, the nonjudgmental valuing of interaction with others, and a commitment to conferring wisdom, particularly through mentoring and modeling. In spite of major differences in background, education, and occupation, narrative indicated similar attitudes and experiences regarding the process of transmission among participants. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2005. / April 28, 2005. / Life Satisfaction, Elders, African American, Narrative Gerontology, Wisdom, Aging, Optimal Aging / Includes bibliographical references. / Marsha L. Rehm, Professor Directing Dissertation; Nicholas Mazza, Outside Committee Member; Mary Hicks, Committee Member; Ann K. Mullis, Committee Member.

This study investigated posttraumatic stress, family separations and attachment among Latin American immigrants, who were either separated or not separated from family when they immigrated from their native countries. Voluntary participants (n = 82)from 13 countries responded to the Posttraumatic Stress diagnostic Scale and the Experiences in Close Relationships Questionnaire - Revised. Thirty seven percent of participants had left family behind, either parents (while they were minors), children or spouses in their native countries. There were no differences in traumatic stress symptoms or severity associated with family separation. However,the total sample had a higher incidence of PTSD (22%)than the general population. Those who immigrated as minors had an even higher incidence of PTSD (38%). The majority of participants with such a diagnosis presented with a delayed onset of the condition. The most bothersome kind of traumatic event was exposure to violence. There were no differences on attachment related avoidance, but the family separated group scored significantly higher on attachment related anxiety than the non-separated group. Attachment related avoidance was significantly related to marital status. Finally, implications for clinical practice and further research were discussed. / Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2004. / December 3, 2003. / Immigrants, Central Americans, South Americans PTSD, Post traumatic Stress, Latin American, Refugees, Family Separations, Attachment / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas Cornille, Professor Directing Dissertation; Roberto Fernandez, Outside Committee Member; Mary Hicks, Committee Member; Ann Mullis, Committee Member.

Although research in the area of academic achievement has expanded over the past several years, questions about the individual and social factors, especially in early childhood, remain unanswered. The purpose of this study is to examine to what extent parents and teacher/school's social capital and resource capital predict academic achievement in early childhood. It is also the purpose of this study to examine the usefulness of social capital theory in claming and understanding of academic achievement in early childhood. This study utilized the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, (ECLS) Kindergarten class of 1998-1999. Children, their parents, and teachers/school administrators who participated in the study in the Spring of 1999 (baseline) and the Spring of 2002 (third grade) was the focus of this research. Results from this study found that teacher/school social capital is a better predicator of children's academic achievement than parents' social capital Results from this study found that parent's resource capital was a better predictor of children's academic achievement than teacher/school resource capital. This study also discusses the findings in relation to implications for future research and policy work. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2007. / March 19, 2007. / Social Capital, Academic Achievement, ECLS-K / Includes bibliographical references. / Ann K. Mullis, Professor Directing Dissertation; Patrice Iatarola, Outside Committee Member; Ronald L. Mullis, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to examine longitudinally how father involvement mediates the relationship between a variety of factors thought to influence the father-child relationship and later child cognitive development. The Responsible Fathering Framework was used as a conceptual model to test items collected in a large national data set (Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort Study [ECLS-B]). Latent variables were constructed from the ECLS-B when the child was 9-months, 2-years, and 4-years among a sub sample of married resident biological fathers using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses at multiple time points. Specifically, this study tested a model of hypothesized relationships between early father factors (role identification, commitment, education), child factors (difficult temperament, disability status, cognitive ability), mother factors (education, employment), contextual factors (religious service attendance, social engagement, urbanicity, crime rate, child poverty), marital relationship factors (relationship happiness, couple conflict) when the child was 9-months and later children's language, literacy, and math development at 4-years of age, mediated by father involvement (cognitive and caregiving engagement, accessibility, and responsibility) when the child was 2-years old. A full measurement model was tested including both latent and observed variables, was assessed first, followed by testing of the structural model to arrive at the most parsimonious model before applying the sample weights. Results of the weighted structural equation model suggest that father involvement served as a poor mediating variable. Although a positive relationship was found between several of the factors at 9-months and later father involvement, the only relationship that was fully mediated by father involvement was the effects of mother employment on later cognitive development. Examination of the path coefficients suggest that fathers' responsibility was negatively related to children's later language development and that fathers' caregiving engagement was also negatively related to children's later literacy development. As expected, cognitive involvement was positively related to literacy development. Implications for future research and practitioners, particularly marriage and family therapists who work with families, are discussed. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2010. / April 29, 2010. / Father Involvement, Responsible Fathering, Fathering / Includes bibliographical references. / B. Kay Pasley, Professor Directing Dissertation; Karin L. Brewster, University Representative; Robert E. Lee, Committee Member; Thomas A. Cornille, Committee Member.

This study examined the relationships between child temperament, gender, teacher-child relationships, and teacher-child interactions. Children's temperament and teacher-child relationships were assessed by teacher ratings. Teacher-child interactions were assessed through natural observations during free play/centers time. The sample consisted of 61 (29 boys and 32 girls) 4- to 5-year-old children who attended one of the four classrooms which participated in the study. The preliminary analyses revealed classroom differences in child temperament, teacher-child relationships, and teacher-child interactions. The results indicated that the temperament factor, Task Orientation was related to closeness of teacher-child relationship. Children with high task orientation had closer relationships with their teachers, while children with low task orientation, who are more active, distractible and less persistent, had less close relationships with their teachers. Reactivity was the most important temperament factor affecting conflictual relationships. The findings also revealed gender differences in teacher-child relationships. One of the teachers reported greater closeness in her relationships with girls than boys. Two of the teachers reported more conflict in their relationships with boys than with girls. Furthermore, boys were observed to receive more behavior management interactions from their teachers than girls. Behavior management was the only teacher-child interaction category which was related to temperament in all of the classrooms. Task orientation was the most important temperament factor affecting behavior management. Other categories of teacher-child interactions' relationships with temperament characteristics indicated classroom differences. The first teacher elaborated children with positive temperament characteristics more frequently than children with negative temperament characteristics. The second and third teachers initiated interactions more frequently with more reactive children. Reactivity was positively related with child initiated interactions and total interactions, elaborations, and praise in the fourth classroom. Therefore, there might be other factors affecting the relationship between temperament and teacher-child interactions; such as, teacher temperament, classroom structure, and curriculum. This study confirms that differences in temperamental characteristics of preschool children are recognized by teachers and that temperamental characteristics are related to teachers' relationships and interactions with children. Therefore, temperament, particularly task orientation factor, may be an important individual difference in preschool children's experiences in a preschool classroom. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of the Childhood Education, Reading and Disability Services in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2006. / June 29, 2006. / Preschool, Gender Differences in Teacher-Child Relationships, Early Childhood Education, Teacher Talk, Individual Differences / Includes bibliographical references. / Ithel Jones, Professor Directing Dissertation; Sande Milton, Outside Committee Member; Charles Wolfgang, Committee Member; Vickie Lake, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of emerging adults who have experienced parental divorce and those who have not with regard to parent-child relationships and romantic relationships. Of the sixty three participants, 45 were women and 18 were men. Twenty two of the students were from divorced homes and forty one of the students were from intact homes. Participants completed three measures including the Personal Information Questionnaire, the Parent-Child Relations Scale, and the Fear of Intimacy Scale. The young adults who had experienced their parents' divorce reported having more negative relationships with their parents as compared to young adults who had not experienced their parents' divorce. There were no significant differences between students who had experienced divorce and those who had not on the Fear of Intimacy Scale. In addition, there were no differences between men and women participants and between those experiencing divorce before the age of six and those experiencing divorce after the age of six on dependent measures. Implications of these findings are discussed for future research and practice. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2008. / April 9, 2008. / Parent-Child Relationships, Divorce, Young Adults, Romantic Relationships, Intimacy / Includes bibliographical references. / Ronald L. Mullis, Professor Directing Dissertation; Lenore McWey, Committee Member; Doris A. Abood, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between child sexual abuse and high-risk maternal parenting indicators and the extent to which maternal depression and self-perceived parenting competence influence that relationship. Symbolic interactionism was the theoretical framework guiding this study from the Parenting Among Women Sexually Abused in Childhood dataset (1998). Path Analysis using AMOS (Arbukle, 1997) software was used to examine the hypotheses. Results indicate no direct relationship between CSA and parenting outcomes, parenting stress, or maltreatment behavior. Yet, the mediation variables, maternal depression and parenting sense of competence, were significantly associated with both CSA and the outcome variables. Post hoc analysis indicated that CSA was significantly associated with decreased parenting sense of competence, controlling for level of depression. These results highlight that the pathways for increased risk in parenting outcomes for CSA survivors are indirect and associated with beliefs of survivors' sense of competence and beliefs associated with depression, as opposed to any direct association with the sexual abuse itself. Implications for researchers and practitioners are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2010. / May 10, 2010. / Child Sexual Abuse, Sexual Abuse, Parenting, Maltreatment / Includes bibliographical references. / Lenore McWey, Professor Directing Dissertation; Joyce Carbonell, University Representative; Tom Cornille, Committee Member; Ann Mullis, Committee Member.

Stress predicts alcohol use but less is known about the role of racial discrimination, a chronic and ubiquitous stressor, as a risk factor for underage drinking among Black youth. While most studies examine race/ethnic differences when exploring underage drinking outcomes, there is a need to understand within-group differences on the stress-alcohol use link in order to focus alcohol prevention and intervention efforts. Thus, this study sought to identify homogeneous subgroups of Black youth based on their experiences of racial discrimination by their teachers and peers in middle and high-school and assess whether these subgroups differed on alcohol-related outcomes in emerging adulthood. Latent transition analyses (LTA) was performed on racial discrimination indicators derived while youth were in the 8th and 11th grade. Findings demonstrated 3 distinct subgroups of youth. Youth in the Teacher-Peer Perceived Racial Discrimination (PRD) group were characterized as having high probabilities of experiencing racial discrimination from both teachers and peers. Those in the Teacher PRD group had high probabilities of experiencing racial discrimination from teachers and a low probability of experiencing racial discrimination from their peers. Finally, youth in the No PRD group had low probabilities across all racial discrimination indicators. Males were more likely to be in the Teacher-Peer and Teacher PRD groups compared to females. Youth in the Teacher-Peer PRD group consumed significantly more alcohol than the other groups, whereas, the Teacher PRD group experienced significantly more alcohol-related consequences. Parents' strategies on how to deal with racial discrimination were not significant protective factors for youth within any group. Implications of the study suggest the need to reduce race-based stress within the school context as a form of intervention and prevention of underage drinking among Blacks. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / June 20, 2014. / African American/Black, Alcohol, Latent Transition Analyses, Racial Discrimination / Includes bibliographical references. / Frank Fincham, Professor Directing Dissertation; John Taylor, University Representative; Kendal Holtrop, Committee Member; Ming Cui, Committee Member.