Vor dem Hintergrund der zukünftigen Notwendigkeit einer nachhaltigen Energieversorgung beschäftigt sich die vorliegende Arbeit mit Technologien der regenerativen Energiequelle Solarenergie, insbesondere Photovoltaik (PV). Systeme zur Nutzung der unerschöpflich verfügbaren, sauberen und im Prinzip “frei Haus” gelieferten Energie der Sonne können eine bedeutsame Rolle in einer umweltverträglicheren Zukunft spielen. Allerdings ist die Herstellung der erforderlichen Komponenten heute i.d.R. noch energie- und kostenintensiv, weshalb für eine korrekte Bewertung dieser Technologien der gesamte Lebenszyklus betrachtet werden muss. Zur tieferen Analyse der PV wird die Methodik des Environmental Life Cycle Costing (ELCC) auf der Grundlage von drei Grundideen eingeführt. Konkret sind dies die Ausgangspunkte: Nachhaltigkeit, Lebenszyklusdenken und die Drei-Dimensionalität dieses Instrumentes durch die gemeinsame Betrachtung ökologischer, ökonomischer und technischer Aspekte in ihrem Zusammenspiel. Ausgehend von theoretischen Elementen der Ökobilanzierung (Life Cycle Assessment) und des Life Cycle Costings, verbunden mit den technischen Eigenschaften der Photovoltaik werden wichtigste Anforderungen und Schritte für die Durchführung eines ELCC für PV beschrieben. Mittels einer softwaregestützten Inhaltsanalyse wird im Anschluss der definierte Rahmen für ein ELCC für PV getestet (und modifiziert) gegen eine Auswahl von 135 bereits existierender Studien, die sich mit dem Lebenszyklus von PV-Technologien aus ökologischer und ökonomischer Sicht beschäftigen. Im Ergebnis hieraus können die wichtigsten Elemente eines ELCC für PV, wie beispielsweise ökologische Wirkungskategorien oder ökonomische Indikatoren, identifiziert werden (methodisches Feedback). In einem nächsten Schritt werden die Studien hinsichtlich ihrer “Qualität” bezogen auf ökologische, ökonomische und übergreifende Inhalte eines ELCC für PV bewertet. Auf diese Weise kann ein Inventar von Lebenszyklusanalysen für PV erstellt werden, das nach den Technologien und der inhaltlichen Qualität bezüglich eines ELCC strukturiert ist und für weitere Analysen als Grundlage dienen kann. Aus den bisherigen Ergebissen kann eine erste Einschätzung zum aktuellen Stand des ELCC für PV in der Literatur vorgenommen werden: Es existiert bereits ein großer Pool von Studien, die sich mit dem Lebenszyklus der PV beschäftigen. Mit Blick auf die Anforderungen eines ELCC für PV besteht jedoch Nachholbedarf in der Verbindung und gemeinsamen Betrachtung von hot spots und trade offs aus ökologischer und ökonomischer Perspektive. Der definierte theoretische Rahmen für ein ELCC für PV, die kodierten Studien sowie das erstellte Inventar von Lebenszyklusanalysen der PV können nun als Grundlage für weitere Analysen dienen. Insbesondere eine inhaltliche Auswertung der konkreten Ergebnisse von Studien kann so einen Benchmark und Orientierung für neue Lebenszyklusanalysen für PV-Technologien liefern. / The special need of a sustainable energy supply in mind the technologies of the renewable source solar energy, especially photovoltaics (PV) is main subject of the present thesis. Using the inexhaustible, clean and “freely delievered” power from the sun solar devices may play a major role in a cleaner future, but, on the other hand, they are still energy consuming and expensive in their production which consequently demands a whole life cycle perspective when assessing this technology. For a closer look at PV the methodology of Environmental Life Cycle Costing (ELCC) is introduced by following three theoretical points of view. Namely these are sustainability, life cycle thinking and the three dimensional nature of this tool by regarding environmental, economic and technical aspects in their interaction. Based on theoretical elements of Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing in combination with the technical background of photovoltaics main requirements and steps for performing an ELCC for PV are described. By executing software based content analysis the defined framework is checked (and modified) against a choice of 135 existing studies analyzing the life cycle of PV technologies from an environmental or economic perspective. As a result the main elements of an ELCC for PV, e.g. environmental impact categories and economic indicators, are identified (methodological feedback). Within the next step the existing studies are rated by their “quality” regarding the environmental, economic and more general parts of an ELCC for PV in order to create an inventory of life cycle studies for PV. This inventory is structured by technologies as well as quality of content respecting ELCC and might be used for further analyses. At this stage the results propose the possibility of a first estimate of the present status of ELCC for PV: until now there is a good pool of existing analyses of the life cycle of PV systems. But from an ELCC perspective the examination of common hot spots and trade offs between economic and environmental aspects should be expanded. The theoretical framework of ELCC for PV, the encoded studies and the inventory of life cycle analyses for PV are now the starting point for further analyses, especially of the individual outcome within studies, which will then pose a benchmark for new life cycle studies of PV technology.

Growing concerns regarding the impact of fossil fuel use upon the environment and the cost of production have led to a growth in the interest of obtaining energy from biomass. 1st and 2nd generation biomass types, however, are often criticised for their high energy requirements and environmental impacts. Algal biomass is considered a 3rd generation biomass which does not require arable land for cultivation, typically has a high productivity and can be converted to a wide variety of energy carriers. Despite research on the concept of producing energy from algal biomass dating back to the 1960s there has been limited commercial development and the environmental advantages are still in doubt. This thesis investigated the potential of algal biomass as a source of bioenergy feedstock by considering the cultivation and processing of localised species of algae and applying life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology to algal biofuel production systems. Experiments were conducted to examine the productivity of a wild algal species in wastewater and the potential recoverable bioenergy yields. The LCA studies drew together data from external studies, commercial databases, industrial reports and experimental work to assess the environmental impacts and the energy balance for each system considered. The thesis investigated the generation of biofuel from both freshwater algal biomass and marine algal biomass. For both cases, the current state of research was examined and the gaps determined. Existing studies suggest the high intensity of microalgal biomass production (fertiliser requirements, high energy harvesting) greatly reduces the overall sustainability. Part of this thesis therefore investigated the possibility of a low input system of microalgal cultivation. A recommended approach was suggested using local species cultivated in wastewater as the nutrient source and a conversion strategy based on the characteristics of the dominant species. The practicality and effectiveness of cultivating and processing locally grown algal biomass under low input conditions was determined by experiments that were conducted in the laboratory. Algal biomass was collected locally and cultivated in the laboratory using agricultural effluent as the nutrient source. The productivity of the algae was monitored alongside the uptake of nutrients. The effluent provided a good media for the cultivation of the wild algae and the nitrogen and phosphorous loading of the effluent was reduced by as much as 98% for NH4+ and 90% for PO4³-. The algal biomass was also tested for its potential as a feedstock for bioethanol production as well as biochar alongside pyrolysis oils and gases. Compared to alternative biomass types tested, the algal biomass appeared to be a good candidate for bioethanol production providing a 38% recovery of bioethanol. The biomass appeared a less favourable substrate for energy recovery from pyrolysis but this process could be considered for carbon biofixation. The sustainability of incorporating microalgal cultivation in wastewater treatment was tested by conducting a life cycle assessment of a large scale system. The life cycle assessment used Haifa wastewater treatment plant in Israel as a case study. The study compared algal cultivation with energy recovery to conventional nutrient removal (A2O process) for enhanced nutrient removal within the wastewater treatment plant. It was found that the use of algal ponds for nutrient removal compared favourably to conventional treatment under specific conditions. These conditions were: the algal biomass is converted to both biodiesel and biogas and the algal biomass is converted to biodiesel, bioethanol and biogas. In these cases the energy balance was greater and the global warming potential and eutrophication potential were less. The conventional nutrient removal was, however, found to be the better method in terms of the acidification potential. Despite being the favourable method of nutrient removal the cultivation and processing of algae relies upon several key assumptions: high year round growth of algae, no contamination and access to a high land area for the cultivation ponds. The sustainability of recovering bioenergy from the cultivation of macroalgae was also tested. A life cycle assessment was conducted investigating the energy return on investment and six environmental impacts for three cultivation methods and three process streams to convert the biomass to bioenergy. Cultivation and processing in Chile was used as a case study due to the depth of knowledge and availability of data. The cultivation scenarios were: bottom cultivation of Gracilaria chilensis, the long line cultivation of Gracilaria chilensis and the long line cultivation of Macrocystis pyrifera. The processing streams were: bioethanol, biogas and both bioethanol and biogas. Most of the data used in the life cycle assessment was obtained from studies conducted in Chile and from communication with local fisherman. It was found that the bottom cultivation of Gracilaria chilensis and conversion to bioethanol and biogas produced the best energy return on investment (2.95) and was most beneficial in terms of the environmental impacts considered. Alternative circumstances were also considered which included new research (untested on a large scale) related to the value used for productivity and conversion of the biomass. This analysis indicated that an EROI of 10.3 could be achieved for the long-line cultivation of Macrocystis pyrifera and conversion to bioethanol and biogas alongside very limited environmental impacts. This result relies, however, upon favourable assumptions that have not yet been proven on a large scale. The work conducted in this thesis highlights the potential of recovering energy from algal biomass. The experimental work and life cycle analysis of freshwater algal cultivation demonstrates the importance of using wastewater treatment as added value to the system. Maximising energy recovery by using a combination of conversion techniques was also shown to be key in providing the most sustainable solution. The sustainability of energy produced from macroalgae was established as being preferable to several conventional energy sources. Innovative methods to improve the system were also shown to greatly enhance the concept.

This research looked at the process of the diffusion of an innovation in the context of smartphones with American senior citizens. The subject of diffusion, or spread of a technology, is a rich and varied topic with more than 60 years of research. Much of this diffusion research does not go beyond the study of the original acceptance of a new idea. An on-line and face-to-face questionnaire was used to collect data from 155 seniors on the entire process of diffusion. The questionnaire was adaptive in nature, focusing questions directly at participants based on where they were in the diffusion process. The scope of the study was limited to two areas: 1) to verify or refute the findings of the Senior Technology Acceptance & Adoption Model (STAM) in the setting of a more diverse population of seniors and the different technology of modern smartphones than the original small population of South African seniors using mobile-phones and 2) to look at the phenomenon of discontinuance of use after adoption. The results show that seniors exhibit a much broader range of influences, behaviors, and motivations than the STAM model showed. Confirmed usefulness, ease of use, and other facilitating conditions play a significant role in how a technology moved from mere use to either being fully accepted or finally rejected. This research adds to the body of knowledge regarding the diffusion of technology, specifically adoption in seniors. Many existing models did not include the complete process by shortening the initial exploration and ignoring the discontinuance. These issues have been specifically addressed in a newly proposed model, the Senior Innovation Domestication and Life-cycle Model (SIDLM).

The family Onchidiidae is perhaps one of the most neglected the Gastropoda. This is rather surprising since it affinities to both the Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata, so is of importance with regard to the phylogenetic relationships of these two groups. As would be expected, the Onchidiidae have been classed sometimes as opisthobranchs and at others as pulmonates , but the latest work on the subject, that of Fretter (1943), regards them as an early offshoot from the main stem of the opisthobranchs. In the New Zealand region only one Genus, Onchidella, is represented, Apart from early accounts of the systematics of the group, and a more recent one (McDowall 1943, unpublished thesis) on anatomy, there has been no research into any other aspect. This has left an open field for the present study, Recourse to what literature there was on the New Zealand Onchidiidae, revealed the necessity for a re-examination of the taxonomy of the Genus. Descriptions of the six species given in Suter's manual (1913) were notable for their lack of characterization of the species. To clarify the systematics it was found to be necessary to study the external morphology and anatomy of animals from all over New Zealand. Naturally enough this lead to the accumulation of details regarding their distribution. Once the various species could be identified with certainty, all further observations were concentrated on on one species, Onchidella nigricans. An ideal site for research into the ecology and reproduction of this species was discovered at Gladstone Pier in the Lyttelton Harbour. As far as general ecology was concerned, investigations were restricted to studies on the habitat and homing behaviour, while population dynamics constituted an interesting analysis of the aggregations of animals in the crevices to which the animals home. Reproduction was investigated under the headings of breeding and development; breeding covering copul ation and oviposition and development the anatomical changes and reorganisations necessary during the transformation of the egg to a young adult. To confirm the breeding times gametogenesis was studied, this also showing the cyclical changes undergone by the gonads during the year. In the conclusions the relations of the family are discussed in the light of a recent paper by Fretter (1943), and of the research carried out in this thesis.

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LCA was used to compare the environmental impacts of two different passenger tubs being designed for the GO-4 vehicle. Based on the results, the adoption of biomaterials clearly displays many benefits. / May 2017

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate how e-business might be integrated into a strategical framework. The strategical framework was based on the Nilsson and Rapp (2005) strategical framework, and e-business strategies were mainly based on customer relationship management strategies that are used in e-commerce companies. We selected Gröndals Apotek, Nu3 and Apotek Hjärtat as our sample, semi-structured interviews as our method and we found that given the external factors in the business environment, retaining and extending online marketing strategies could be integrated into the corporate strategy without taking into consideration of the firm-size. In addition, we found that e-business acquisition strategies such as SEM and blogs were more useful for different firm-sizes in order to create strategic congruence of integrating e-business into the corporate strategy. Lastly, online customer service and pricing were two features that could be appropriate features in the integrated online marketing strategies that aim’s in displaying the competitive advantage.