The behavior of bubbles migrating in porous media is a critical factor in several soil remediation operations such as in situ air sparging, supersaturated water injection, bioslurping, trench aeration and up-flow operation of moving bed sand filters as well as in the oil and gas industry. Groundwater aquifers are constantly polluted by human activity and a common threat to fresh water is the contamination by non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPL). In many NAPL removal technologies, gas bubbles carrying NAPL residuals move upwards through the water-saturated porous media and thus play an essential role in contaminant recovery. The mobilization of the residual oil blobs in oil reservoirs is another important application for rising bubbles in porous media. After an oil field is waterflooded, a significant fraction of oil, referred to as waterflood residual oil, remains trapped. A potential mechanism to recover this residual oil is the mobilization of oil by gas bubbles moving upwards in water-wet systems. The main focus of this work was to measure the velocity of bubbles of various lengths during their migration through a water-wet porous medium. Experiments were conducted in a saturated glass micromodel with different test liquids, air bubbles of varying lengths and different micromodel elevation angles. More than a hundred experimental runs were performed to measure the migration velocity of bubbles as a function of wetting fluid properties, bubble length, and micromodel inclination angle. The results showed a linear dependency of the average bubble velocity as a function of bubble length and the sine of inclination angle of the model. Comparisons were made using experimental data for air bubbles rising in kerosene, Soltrol 170 and dyed White Oil. The calculated permeability of the micromodel was obtained for different systems assuming the effective length for viscous dissipation is equal to the initial bubble length. It was found that the calculated permeability had an increasing trend with increasing bubble length. Laboratory visualization experiments were conducted for air bubbles in White Oil (viscosity of 12 cP) to visualize the periodic nature of the flow of rising bubbles in a pore network. The motion of the air bubbles in saturated micromodel was video-recorded by a digital camera, reviewed and analyzed using PowerDVD ™11 software. An image of a bubble migrating in the porous medium was obtained by capturing a still frame at a specific time and was analyzed to determine the bubble shape, the exact positions of the bubble front and bubble tail during motion and, thus, the dynamic length of the bubble. A deformation in the shape of the bubble tail end was observed for long bubbles. The dynamic bubble lengths were larger than the static bubble lengths and showed an increasing trend when increasing the angle of inclination. The dynamic bubble lengths were used to recalculate the bubble velocity and permeability. A linear correlation was found for the average bubble velocity as a function of dynamic bubble length. Numerical simulation was performed by modifying an existing MATLAB® simulation for the rise velocity of a gas bubble and the induced pressure field while it migrates though porous media. The results showed that the rise velocity of a gas bubble is affected by the grid size of the pore network in the direction perpendicular to the bubble migration. In reality, this effect is demonstrated by the presence of other bubbles near the rising bubble in porous media. The simulation results showed good agreement with experimental data for long bubbles with high velocities. More work is required to improve the accuracy of simulation results for relatively large bubbles.

The behavior of bubbles migrating in porous media is a critical factor in several soil remediation operations such as in situ air sparging, supersaturated water injection, bioslurping, trench aeration and up-flow operation of moving bed sand filters as well as in the oil and gas industry. Groundwater aquifers are constantly polluted by human activity and a common threat to fresh water is the contamination by non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPL). In many NAPL removal technologies, gas bubbles carrying NAPL residuals move upwards through the water-saturated porous media and thus play an essential role in contaminant recovery. The mobilization of the residual oil blobs in oil reservoirs is another important application for rising bubbles in porous media. After an oil field is waterflooded, a significant fraction of oil, referred to as waterflood residual oil, remains trapped. A potential mechanism to recover this residual oil is the mobilization of oil by gas bubbles moving upwards in water-wet systems. The main focus of this work was to measure the velocity of bubbles of various lengths during their migration through a water-wet porous medium. Experiments were conducted in a saturated glass micromodel with different test liquids, air bubbles of varying lengths and different micromodel elevation angles. More than a hundred experimental runs were performed to measure the migration velocity of bubbles as a function of wetting fluid properties, bubble length, and micromodel inclination angle. The results showed a linear dependency of the average bubble velocity as a function of bubble length and the sine of inclination angle of the model. Comparisons were made using experimental data for air bubbles rising in kerosene, Soltrol 170 and dyed White Oil. The calculated permeability of the micromodel was obtained for different systems assuming the effective length for viscous dissipation is equal to the initial bubble length. It was found that the calculated permeability had an increasing trend with increasing bubble length. Laboratory visualization experiments were conducted for air bubbles in White Oil (viscosity of 12 cP) to visualize the periodic nature of the flow of rising bubbles in a pore network. The motion of the air bubbles in saturated micromodel was video-recorded by a digital camera, reviewed and analyzed using PowerDVD ™11 software. An image of a bubble migrating in the porous medium was obtained by capturing a still frame at a specific time and was analyzed to determine the bubble shape, the exact positions of the bubble front and bubble tail during motion and, thus, the dynamic length of the bubble. A deformation in the shape of the bubble tail end was observed for long bubbles. The dynamic bubble lengths were larger than the static bubble lengths and showed an increasing trend when increasing the angle of inclination. The dynamic bubble lengths were used to recalculate the bubble velocity and permeability. A linear correlation was found for the average bubble velocity as a function of dynamic bubble length. Numerical simulation was performed by modifying an existing MATLAB® simulation for the rise velocity of a gas bubble and the induced pressure field while it migrates though porous media. The results showed that the rise velocity of a gas bubble is affected by the grid size of the pore network in the direction perpendicular to the bubble migration. In reality, this effect is demonstrated by the presence of other bubbles near the rising bubble in porous media. The simulation results showed good agreement with experimental data for long bubbles with high velocities. More work is required to improve the accuracy of simulation results for relatively large bubbles.

The use of foam-forming surfactants offers promise to improve sweep efficiency and mobility control for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). This thesis provides an in depth understanding of transport of surfactant and foam through porous media using a combination of laboratory experiments and numerical simulations. In particular, there are several issues in foam EOR processes that are examined. These include screening of surfactant adsorption onto representative rock surfaces, modeling of foam flow through porous media, and studying the effects of surface wettability and porous media heterogeneity. Surfactant adsorption onto rock surfaces is a main cause of foam chromatographic retardation as well as increased process cost. Successful foam application requires low surfactant adsorption on reservoir rock. The focus of this thesis is natural carbonate rock surfaces, such as dolomite. Surfactant adsorption was found to be highly dependent on electrostatic interactions between surfactants and rock surface. For example, the nonionic surfactant Tergitol 15-S-30 exhibits low adsorption on dolomite under alkaline conditions. In contrast, high adsorption of cationic surfactants was observed on some natural carbonate surfaces. XPS analysis reveals silicon and aluminum impurities exist in natural carbonates, but not in synthetic calcite. The high adsorption is due to the strong electrostatic interactions between the cationic surfactants and negative binding sites in silica and/or clay. There are a number of commercial foam simulators, but an approach to estimate foam modeling parameters from laboratory experiments is needed to simulate foam transport. A one-dimensional foam simulator is developed to simulate foam flow. Chromatographic retardation of surfactants caused by adsorption and by partition between phases is investigated. The parameters in the foam model are estimated with an approach utilizing both steady-state and transient experiments. By superimposing contour plots of the transition foam quality and the foam apparent viscosity, one can estimate the reference mobility reduction factor (fmmob) and the critical water saturation (fmdry) using the STARS foam model. The parameter epdry, which regulates the abruptness of the foam dry-out effect, can be estimated by a transient foam experiment in which 100% gas displaces surfactant solution at 100% water saturation. Micromodel experiments allow for pore-level visualization of foam transport. We have developed model porous media systems using polydimethylsiloxane. We developed a simple method to tune and pattern the wettability of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to generate porous media models with specific structure and wettability. The effect of wettability on flow patterns is observed in gas-liquid flow. The use of foam to divert flow from high permeable to low permeable regions is demonstrated in a heterogeneous porous micromodel. Compared with 100% gas injection, surfactant-stabilized foam effectively improves the sweep of the aqueous fluid in both high and low permeability regions of the micromodel. The best performance of foam on fluid diversion is observed in the lamella-separated foam regime, where the presence of foam can enhance gas saturation in the low permeable region up to 45.1% at the time of gas breakthrough. In conclusion, this thesis provides new findings in surfactant adsorption onto mineral surfaces, in the methodology of estimating foam parameters for reservoir simulation, and in micromodel observations of foam flow through porous media. These findings will be useful to design foam flooding in EOR processes.

No description available.

Pore scale interaction between matrix and fracture during miscible and immiscible CO2 injection was studied experimentally using visual models. Initially, visualization experiments were conducted on 2-D glass bead packed models by injecting n-heptane (solvent) displacing different kinds of processed oil. The focus was on the displacement patterns and solvent breakthrough controlled by matrix-fracture interaction and the pore scale behaviour of solvent-oil interaction for different fracture and injection conditions (rate, vertical vs. horizontal injection) as well as oil viscosity. Besides the visual investigation, effluent was also analyzed to calculate the solvent cut and oil recovery. Next, the process was modeled numerically using a commercial compositional simulator and the saturation distribution in the matrix was matched to the experimental data. The key parameters in the matching process were the effective diffusion coefficients and the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities. The diffusion coefficients were specified for each fluid and dispersivities were assigned into grid blocks separately for the fracture and the matrix. Finally, glass etched microfluidic models were used to investigate pore scale interaction between the matrix and the fracture. The models were prepared by etching homogeneous and heterogeneous micro scale pore patterns on glass sheets bonded together and then saturated with colored n-decane as the oleic phase. CO2 was injected at miscible and immiscible conditions. The focus was on visual pore scale analysis of miscibility, breakthrough of CO2 and oil/CO2 transfer between the matrix and the fracture under different miscibility, injection rate and wettability conditions. / Petroleum Engineering

[pt] O processo de recuperação de óleo pelo deslocamento com água é o método mais utilizado na indústria de petróleo. No entanto, as altas razões de mobilidade e baixas eficiências de varrido tornam o processo menos eficiente. Uma alternativa usada para minimizar este efeito é a aplicação de tecnologias que atuam como agentes de controle de mobilidade. Dentre eles, e em particular a injeção de emulsões de óleo em água tem sido estudada com relativo sucesso como um método de recuperação avançada de óleo. Alguns estudos indicam melhor varredura do reservatório devido a uma redução da mobilidade da água em regiões do reservatório já varridas por água, mediante a aglomeração e bloqueio parcial dos poros mais permeáveis com gotas da fase dispersa da emulsão. Contudo, ainda não há compreensão plena dos mecanismos associados ao escoamento de emulsões em meios porosos, assim, uma análise e visualização na escala microscópica dos fenômenos envolvidos se faz essencial para a melhora do entendimento do escoamento de emulsões em um reservatório. Neste trabalho, experimentos de escoamento de emulsões foram conduzidos em um micromodelo de vidro, estrutura artificial que busca representar alguns aspectos principais de um meio poroso e proporciona uma adequada visualização do comportamento das faces ao longo do escoamento. Nos experimentos foram realizadas alterações na molhabilidade e variou-se a vazão volumétrica a fim de avaliar diferentes números de capilaridade no meio poroso. Dentro dos resultados mais significativos, foi evidenciado como a fase dispersa da emulsão é capaz de bloquear os poros e gargantas de poro alterando a distribuição dos fluidos no meio poroso, melhorando a eficiência de deslocamento na escala de poro e com isso o fator de recuperação final. Os resultados mostram que, a altos números de capilaridade as forças interfaciais são menos importantes ao reduzir o efeito de bloqueio pelas gotas da fase dispersa nos poros do micromodelo. Estes resultados fornecem um grande aprendizado ao permitir conhecer características do escoamento de emulsões no meio poroso para uma futura aplicação no campo. / [en] The oil recovery process by water-flooding is the most used method in the oil industry. However, the high mobility ratios and low sweep efficiencies make the process less effective. A common alternative to minimize this effect is the application of technologies that act as mobility control agents. Among them and in particular the injection of oil in water emulsions has been studied with relative success as an Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) method. Several studies indicate a better reservoir sweep due to the water mobility reduction in regions already swept by water. This reduction can be associated with partial blockage of porous media throats by droplets of emulsion dispersed phase. Nevertheless, there is still no full understanding of the mechanisms associated to the flow of emulsions in porous media, thus, an analysis and visualization at the microscopic scale of the involved phenomena is essential for the improvement of the comprehension of the flow of emulsions in a reservoir. In this work, experimental tests related to the flow of emulsions in a glass micro-model were performed, artificial device that represents some principal features of a porous medium and provides a proper visualization of the phase behavior. In the experiments, the effect of the capillary number on the oil recovery factor and the relative influence of the wettability of the porous medium on the oil displacement process were studied. The results evidence how the oil droplets in the emulsion are capable of block the pores and the pore throats modifying the fluids distribution in the porous medium, improving the displacement efficiency at pore scale and consequently the final oil recovery factor. It was also observed that at high capillary numbers, the blocking caused by the capillary pressure needed to deform the droplet becomes less intense. These results provide a great learning by allowing to know the characteristics of the flow of emulsions in porous media for a future field application.

Les effets capillaires sont très courant dans la Nature. Dans le contexte du séchage de milieux poreux dont la taille de pore est dans la gamme micromètre-millimètre, ils jouent un effet dominant en contrôlant la répartition des phases (liquide-vapeur) dans l’espace poral, au fur et a` mesure que le séchage se produit. L’idée du présent travail est d’étudier le séchage d’un fluide pur et mouillant dans des micromodèles, c’est-à-dire des milieux poreux modèles quasi-2D et micro-fabriqués. Nous présentons des résultats obtenus pour différentes géométries. Typiquement, les micromodèles utilisés sont constitués de réseaux de cylindres pris en sandwich entre deux plaques. La distribution des phases et le taux d’évaporation dans de tels micromodèles peuvent être aisément mesurés par visualisation directe puis traitement d’images.En jouant sur l’arrangement spatial des cylindres, on obtient dans un premier temps des micromodèles pour lesquels le taux de séchage est quasi-constant, depuis le début de l’expérience de séchage jusqu’à l’évaporation totale du liquide saturant initialement le système. Typiquement, cette situation est obtenue quand la taille des pores décroît en allant du centre du micromodèle vers sa périphérie (les micromodèles sont axisymmétriques). Au contraire, quand la taille des pores croît du centre vers la périphérie, l’invasion d’un front de séchage stable est observée, d’ou` un temps de séchage total bien supérieur.Nous avons aussi réalisé un autre type de microsystèmes, au sein duquel les cylindres sont arrangés en spirale de Fibonacci, en nous inspirant de motifs observés en phillotaxie. Dans de tels systèmes, des films liquides épais se développent le long des spirales, au cours du séchage, et jouent un rôle crucial dans la cinétique d’évaporation. Cette situation rappelle celle déjà étudiée par Chauvet dans des tubes capillaires de section carrée. Cependant, elle est plus complexe, de par la nature poreuse du micromodèle (alors qu’un tube capillaire, tel qu’étudié par Chauvet, peut être vu comme un pore unique) et parce que les films liquides y ont une forme plus complexe. Pour de tels systèmes, nous présentons des résultats expérimentaux quantifiant l’effet des films liquides sur la cinétique de séchage, en lien avec des prédictions théoriques issues d’un modèle de séchage visco-capillaire. Un tel modèle nécessite l’utilisation du logiciel Surface Evolver pour modéliser la forme des films liquides, couplée avec des simulations directes de l’écoulement de Stokes dans les films liquides, pour y calculer la résistance visqueuse a` l’écoulement induit par l’évaporation.Enfin, dans un dernier chapitre, plusieurs expériences d’évaporation sont conduites sur des micromodèles déformables. Des effets élasto-capillaires peuvent en effet induire des changements de géométrie de l’espace poral en cours d’évaporation, ce qui, comme vu précédemment, peut affecter la distribution des phases et la cinétique de séchage. / Capillarity is a common phenomenon encountered in Nature. In the context of the drying of porous media with pore size in the micrometer-millimeter size range, capillary effects play a dominant role in controlling the phases (liquid or vapor) distribution in the pore space as drying occurs. The basic idea of the present work is to study the drying of pure, wetting fluids in micro-fabricated, quasi-2D, model porous media (hereafter called micromodels). We present results obtained for different micromodel geometries. Typically, the micromodels used consist of arrangements of cylinders sandwiched between a top and bottom plate. Phases distribution and evaporation rates in such micromodels can easily be measured by direct visualizations and subsequent image processing.By tuning the cylinders pattern, one can first obtain micromodels for which the drying rate is almost constant, from the beginning of the drying experiment to the total evaporation of the liquid initially filling the system. Typically, this situation is obtained when the pores size decreases from the micromodel center to the periphery (the micromodels are axisymmetric). On the contrary, when the pores size increases from the center to the periphery, invasion of a stable drying front is observed, resulting in a much longer total drying time.We also designed another type of micromodel where the cylinders are arranged in a Fibonacci spiral pattern, a design inspired by phyllotaxic structure. In such systems, thick liquid films develop along the spirals during drying and play a key role in the drying kinetics. This situation is reminiscent of that already studied by Chauvet in capillary tubes with square cross-sections. However, it is more complex because of the porous nature of the micromodel (whereas a single capillary tube, as studied by Chauvet, can be viewed as a unique pore), and because of the much more complex liquid films shapes. For such systems, we present some experimental results on the liquid films effects on the drying kinetics, together with theoretical prediction, based on a visco-capillary drying model. Such a modelling requires the use of the Surface Evolver software to model the film shape, coupled with DNS simulations of the Stokes flow within the liquid films to compute the viscous resistance to the evaporation-induced flow.Finally, as a last part of this thesis, several evaporation experiments performed on deformable micromodels are presented. This preliminary work aims at reaching a situation where elasto-capillary effects modify the pore space geometry during evaporation. This, as seen above, should in turn alter the phase distribution during evaporation and the drying kinetics.

[pt] A espuma é amplamente usada em operações de recuperação de óleo para melhorar a eficiência de varrido, em operações de armazenamento de gás e acidificação, e para resolver problemas causados por zonas ladras ou segregação gravitacional. A espuma, que pode ser pré-formada e injetada no reservatório ou produzida in situ através da geometria do meio poroso, escoa nas regiões de alta permeabilidade e desvia o fluido de deslocamento na direção do óleo aprisionado, reduzindo a permeabilidade relativa ao gás e levando a uma frente de deslocamento mais estável. A eficiência desses processos depende muito da geração e estabilidade dos filmes de espuma (lamelas) que residem nos poros. A mobilidade do gás injetado é reduzida quando a espuma é formada; esta redução é atribuída ao aumento da viscosidade efetiva do gás e à redução da permeabilidade relativa ao gás. As lamelas formadas criam resistência ao fluxo do gás, impedindo seu movimento livre dentro do meio poroso. A população de lamelas que compõe a espuma está diretamente relacionada com a concentração de surfactante, e seu fluxo e mobilidade são funções da geometria dos poros e das propriedades da espuma. No entanto, a dinâmica da formação de espuma em meios porosos não é totalmente compreendida devido à sua complexidade O objetivo da primeira parte desta pesquisa é compreender o impacto do aumento da concentração de surfactante na formação de espuma durante a injeção de gás em um modelo bidimensional de meio poroso de vidro saturado com uma solução de surfactante. A segunda parte foca na formação de espuma e sua implicação no deslocamento de óleo durante o processo de injeção SAG (injeção alternada de solução de surfactante e gás) considerando diferentes concentrações de surfactante. Uma configuração microfluídica composta por micromodelo de vidro, bomba de seringa, transdutor de pressão e microscópio foi usada para visualizar o deslocamento da escala dos poros e correlacionar a evolução da formação das lamelas durante o processo de injeção com a diferença de pressão para diferentes condições de fluxo através do processamento de imagem. A dinâmica de formação das lamelas é relatada e relacionada ao comportamento do fluxo macroscópico. / [en] Foam is widely used in oil recovery operations to improve sweep efficiency, in gas storage and acidization operations, and to solve problems caused by either a thief zone or gravity override. Foam, which can be preformed and injected into the reservoir or produced in situ through the pore space, fills the high permeability areas known as thief zones and diverts the displacing fluid into the direction of trapped oil, reducing the relative permeability of gas and leading to a more stable displacement front. The efficiency of these processes largely depends on the generation and stability of the foam films (lamellae) residing in the pores. The mobility of the injected gas is reduced when foam is formed; this reduction is attributed to the reduction of the gas phase relative permeability. The lamellae formed create resistance against the gas flow, impeding its free motion inside the porous media. The lamellae population that composes the foam is directly related to surfactant concentration, and their flow and mobility are functions of the pore geometry and foam properties. However, the dynamics of foam formation in porous media is not fully understood due to its complexity. The goal of the first part of this research is to understand the impact of increasing surfactant concentration on foam formation during gas injection in a two-dimensional porous media glass model occupied by a surfactant solution. The second part focuses on foam formation and its implications for oil displacement during the SAG (surfactant-alternating-gas) injection, considering different surfactant concentrations. A microfluidic setup composed of a glass micromodel, syringe pump, pressure transducer and microscope, was used to visualize the pore-scale displacement and correlate the evolution of lamellae formation during the injection process with pressure difference for different flow conditions through image processing. The dynamics of lamellae formation is reported and related to macroscopic flow behavior.

We theoretically and experimentally investigate the impact of pore space structure, wettability, and surface roughness on the displacement front, trapping, and sweeping efficiency at low capillary numbers. The microstructure of (i) 2D geologically-realistic media (2D natural sand and sandstone), (ii) a topological 3D-2D-transformation (2D sand analog), and (iii) geometrically representative media (Delaunay Triangulation) were studied over a wide range of wettability from water-wet to oil-wet systems provided by using various fluid-pairs. We observed the transition (compact to fractal) in the displacement front caused by local instabilities identified by Cieplak and Robbins. The trapping efficiency of 2D natural microstructures showed a non-monotonous dependency on wettability, whereas a crossover from no trapping to maximal trapping was observed in 2D patterns of circular grains. For the first time, we compared identical experimental microstructures with simulation, capturing the key elements of the invasion process. We demonstrated that corner flows occur particularly in low-porosity media, where the smaller grain-grain distance hindered the corner-flow bridging. These insights could improve the CO2 geological storage and Enhanced Oil Recovery processes.