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[pt] Nos últimos anos, as vantagens do uso de agentes de contraste de ultrassom (UCA) com distribuição de tamanho monodisperso foram destacadas. Caracterizadas por um coeficiente de variação (CV) inferior a 5 por cento, as microbolhas monodispersas têm o potencial de melhorar a qualidade das imagens de ultrassom (melhorando a relação sinal/ruído e reduzindo os efeitos de sombra). Também facilita o monitoramento da freqüência de ressonância das microbolhas, abrindo possibilidades nas áreas de imagem molecular e medições de pressão não-invasiva. Além disso, as bolhas monodispersas podem otimizar a entrega de drogas, genes e gases terapêuticos (por exemplo, sonotrombólise, sonoporação, abertura da barreira hemato-encefálica). No entanto, até agora, ao contrário das bolhas polidispersas, a liofilização de populações monodispersas de microbolhas, sem deteriorar sua monodispersividade, continuam sendo um desafio. Assim, hoje, as bolhas monodispersas não podem ser armazenadas nem transportadas. Isto representa um gargalo para seu uso em aplicações clínicas. Tentativas feitas para resolver o problema têm usado solventes tóxicos, levantando questões regulatórias O objetivo do presente trabalho foi de desenvolver uma nova técnica de liofilização para microbolhas monodispersas que não degradassem sua distribuição de tamanho, ou suas propriedades acústicas, sem o uso de solventes tóxicos. Como primeira etapa do projeto, foram fabricados dispositivos microfluídicos com focalização de escoamento (flow-focusing) para produzir microbolhas com distribuição de tamanho altamente monodispersa (CV menor que 5 por cento). Durante esta etapa, foi realizada a otimização da formulação das microbolhas e dos materiais crioprotetores. Foi realizada a caracterização geométrica de duas populações de microbolhas com diâmetros médios de 40 micrômetros e 5 micrômetros . Com o uso de uma câmera de alta velocidade acoplada a um microscópio ótico, imagens de todas as etapas do processo de liofilização das microbolhas foram capturadas e analisadas, visando controlar a distribuição de tamanho e a taxa de produção das microbolhas. As etapas do processo de liofilização consistiram na produção, coleta, congelamento, liofilização e ressuspensão. O desenvolvimento de uma nova técnica de recuperação, onde as microbolhas eram armazenadas em monocamadas, resultou em uma redução drástica da interação entre as bolhas durante a liofilização. Desta forma, foi possível preservar a monodispersão durante o processo de liofilização, resultando em um CV menor que 6 por cento para a população de microbolhas ressuspensas. Os ensaios de microscópio eletrônico de varredura ambiental (ESEM) demonstraram uniformidade nas cascas das microbolhas liofilizadas com uma espessura de parede estimada em 70nm. Na segunda etapa do projeto, foi realizada uma caracterização da resposta acústica de retrodifusão das microbolhas liofilizadas em forma de PVA, em comparação com as microbolhas recém produzidas e as microbolhas polidispersa SonovueTM disponíveis comercialmente. Primeiramente, a resposta acústica de retrodifusão das microbolhas foi avaliada em duas configurações diferentes: a célula centimétrica (recipiente grande - 45mmx10mmx30mm), e o milli-canal (sistema confinado no qual o líquido está em repouso - 10 mmx35 mmx1 mm). Usando um transdutor acústico focalizado com frequência de 2,25MHz, as respostas acústicas das microbolhas, na forma de frequência e amplitude de ressonância fundamental, antes e depois do processo de liofilização, foram comparadas para a população de bolhas de 5 micrômetros de diâmetro. Verificou-se que a variação de amplitude e frequência de ressonância fundamental das bolhas estava dentro da faixa de incerteza experimental, sugerindo que suas propriedades acústicas foram preservadas. Observamos também, de acordo com a literatura, que existe uma dependência linear entre a concentração da população de microbolhas (sem liofilização) e a amplitude do coeficiente de retrodifusão. Posteriormente, foi feita uma comparação da resposta de retrodispersão acústica para bolhas monodispersas e polidispersas. Também, de acordo com a literatura, observamos uma amplitude no sinal de resposta das bolhas monodispersas de 8 a 10 vezes maior que a das bolhas polidispersas, para a mesma concentração in vitro. Também foi possível observar a menor incerteza no monitoramento do pico de ressonância fundamental das bolhas e uma menor largura de banda para a população de bolhas monodispersas. Finalmente, utilizando a abordagem de imagens de matriz universal de ultrassom, desenvolvida no Institut Langevin, a resposta acústica de retrodifusão da população monodispersa liofilizada e polidispersa foi avaliada em um tecido artificial com impedância acústica similar ao tecido humano. Os resultados preliminares reforçam os resultados das medições acústicas de retrodifusão na célula centimétrica e no milicanal, nos quais a população monodispersa apresentou uma largura de banda significativamente reduzida em comparação com a ampla largura de banda da população polidispersa. O presente trabalho apresentou com sucesso uma nova técnica desenvolvida para liofilizar as microbolhas monodispersas sem degradar suas propriedades geométricas e acústicas. Assim, propusemos uma nova geração de agentes de contraste ultrassom na forma de um pó liofilizado estável que pode ser transportado e armazenado por meses e ressuspenso para uso em aplicações clínicas. / [en] In recent years, the advantages of using ultrasound contrast agents (UCA) with monodisperse size distribution have been highlighted. Characterized by a coefficient of variation (CV) lower than 5 percent, monodisperse microbubbles have the potential to improve the quality of ultrasound images (improving signal-to-noise ratio and reducing shadowing effects. It also facilitates microbubble resonance frequency monitoring, opening possibilities in the areas of molecular imaging and non-invasive pressure measurements. In addition, monodisperse bubbles can optimize the drugs, genes, and therapeutic gas delivery (e.g. sonotrombolysis, sonoporation, blood-brain barrier opening). However, thus far, contrarily to polydisperse bubbles, freeze-drying monodisperse populations of fresh microbubbles, without deteriorating their monodispersity, remains a challenge. Thereby, today, monodisperse bubbles can neither be stored nor transported. This represents a bottleneck for their use in clinical applications. Attempts made to solve the problem have used toxic solvents, raising regulatory issues The objective of the present work was to develop a new freeze-drying technique for monodisperse microbubbles that did not degrade their size distribution, or their acoustic properties, without the use of toxic solvents. As the first step of the project, flow-focusing microfluidic devices were fabricated to produce microbubbles with highly monodisperse size distribution (CV less than 5 percent). During this step, the optimization of the microbubble formulation and cryoprotectant materials was performed. Geometric characterization of two of microbubbles with mean diameters of 40 Micrometers and 5 Micrometers was performed. With the use of a high-speed camera coupled to an optical microscope, images of all stages of the freeze-drying process of the microbubbles were captured and analyzed, aiming to control the size distribution and production rate of the microbubbles. The steps of the freeze-drying process consisted of production, collection, freezing, lyophilization, and resuspension. The development of a new retrieval technique, where the microbubbles were stored in monolayers, resulted in a drastic reduction of the interaction between the bubbles during lyophilization. In this way, it was possible to preserve the monodispersity during the freeze-drying process, resulting in a CV less than 6 percent for the resuspended microbubble population. Environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) assays demonstrated uniformity in the shells of the freeze-dried microbubbles with an estimated wall thickness of 70nm. In the second stage of the project, a characterization of the backscatter acoustic response of the freeze-dried monodisperse PVA-shelled microbubbles, in comparison with freshly produced microbubbles, and commercially available polydisperse microbubbles SonovueTM was conducted. Firstly, the backscatter acoustic response of the microbubbles was evaluated in two different setups: the centimetric cell (large container - 45mmx10mmx30mm), and the milli-channel (confined system in which the liquid is at rest - 10 mmx35 mmx1 mm). Using a focused acoustic transducer with a frequency of 2.25MHz, the acoustic responses of the microbubbles, in the form of the fundamental resonance frequency and amplitude, before and after the freeze-drying process was compared for the bubble population of 5 Micrometers diameter. It was found that the variation of amplitude and fundamental resonance frequency of the bubbles were within the experimental uncertainty range, suggesting that their acoustic properties were preserved. We also observed, in agreement with the literature, that there is a linear dependence between the concentration of the microbubble population (without freeze-drying) and the amplitude of the backscatter coefficient. Subsequently, a comparison of the acoustic backscatter response was performed for monodisperse and polydisperse bubbles. Also, in agreement with the literature, we observed an amplitude in the response signal of the monodispersed bubbles of 8 to 10 times higher than that for the polydispersed ones, for the same in vitro concentration. It was also possible to observe the lower uncertainty in monitoring the fundamental resonance peak of the bubbles and a smaller bandwidth for the monodispersed bubble population. Finally, using the universal ultrasound matrix imaging approach, developed at Institut Langevin, the backscatter acoustic response of the freeze-dried monodisperse and polydisperse population was evaluated in a phantom mimicking tissue. The preliminary results reinforce the findings from the backscatter acoustic measurements in the centimetric cell and the milli-channel, in which the monodisperse population presented a significantly reduced bandwidth in comparison with the wide bandwidth of the polydisperse population. The present work successfully presented a new technique developed to freezedry monodisperse microbubbles without degrading their geometrical and acoustic properties. Thus, we proposed a new generation of ultrasound contrast agents in the form of a stable freeze-dried powder that can be transported and stored for months and resuspended for use in clinical applications. / [fr] Ces dernieres années, les avantages de l utilisation d agents de contraste ultrasonores (ACU) à distribution de taille monodisperse ont été mis en évidence. Caractérisées par un coefficient de variation (CV) de leur diamètre inférieur à 5 Pour cent, les microbulles monodisperses ont le potentiel d améliorer la qualité des images ultrasonores (amélioration du rapport signal/bruit et réduction des effets d ombre). Elles facilitent également le contrôle de la fréquence de résonance des microbulles, ouvrant des possibilités dans les domaines de l imagerie moléculaire et des mesures de pression non invasives. En outre, les bulles monodisperses peuvent optimiser l administration de médicaments, de gènes et de gaz thérapeutiques (par exemple, sonotrombolyse, sonoporation, ouverture de la barrière hémato-encéphalique). Cependant, jusqu à présent, contrairement aux bulles polydisperses, la lyophilisation de populations monodisperses de microbulles fraiches, sans détérioration de leur monodispersité, reste un défi. Ainsi, aujourd hui, les bulles monodisperses ne peuvent être ni stockées ni transportées. Cela représente un goulot d étranglement pour leur utilisation dans des applications cliniques. Les tentatives faites pour résoudre ce problème ont utilisé des solvants toxiques, ce qui soulève des problèmes de réglementation. L objectif du présent travail était de développer une nouvelle technique de lyophilisation des microbulles monodisperses qui ne dégrade pas leur distribution de taille, ni leurs propriétés acoustiques, et ce sans utiliser de solvants toxiques. La première étape du projet a consisté à fabriquer des dispositifs microfluidiques de focalisation du flux pour produire des microbulles avec une distribution de taille hautement monodisperse (CV moins que 5 Pour cent). Au cours de cette étape, l optimisation de la formulation des microbulles et des matériaux cryoprotecteurs a été réalisée. La caractérisation géométrique de deux microbulles avec des diamètres moyens de 40 micrometres et 5 micrometres a été menée. A l aide d une caméra à haute vitesse couplée à un microscope optique, des images de toutes les étapes du processus de lyophilisation des microbulles ont été capturées et analysées, dans le but de contrôler la distribution de taille et le taux de production des microbulles. Les étapes du processus de lyophilisation comprenaient la production, la collecte, la congélation, la lyophilisation et la remise en suspension. Le développement d une nouvelle technique de récupération, ou les microbulles étaient stockées en monocouches, a permis de réduire considérablement l interaction entre les bulles pendant la lyophilisation. De cette maniere, il a été possible de préserver la monodispersité pendant le processus de lyophilisation, ce qui a permis d obtenir un CV moins que 6 Pour cent pour la population de microbulles remise en suspension. Les analyses au microscope électronique à balayage environnemental (ESEM) ont démontré l uniformité des enveloppes des microbulles lyophilisées avec une épaisseur de paroi estimée à 70nm. Dans la deuxième étape du projet, une caractérisation de la réponse acoustique (en rétrodiffusion) des microbulles monodisperses lyophilisées et enveloppées de PVA a été réalisée et comparée avec celles de microbulles fraichement produites et de microbulles polydisperses disponibles dans le commerce (SonovueTM). Tout d abord, la réponse acoustique en rétrodiffusion des microbulles a été évaluée dans deux configurations différentes : la cellule centimétrique (grand récipient - 45mmx10mmx30mm), et le milli-channel (systeme confiné dans lequel le liquide est au repos - 10 mmx35 mmx1 mm). En utilisant un transducteur acoustique focalisé avec une fréquence de 2.25MHz, les réponses acoustiques des microbulles (fréquence de résonance fondamentale et amplitude) avant et après le processus de lyophilisation ont été comparées pour la population de bulles de 5 micrometres de diamètre. Il a été constaté que la variation de l amplitude et de la fréquence de résonance fondamentale des bulles se situait dans la plage d incertitude expérimentale, ce qui suggère que leurs propriétés acoustiques ont été préservées. Nous avons également observé, en accord avec la littérature, qu il existe une dépendance linéaire entre la concentration de la population de microbulles (sans lyophilisation) et l amplitude du coefficient de rétrodiffusion. Par la suite, une comparaison de la réponse acoustique a été effectuée pour des bulles monodisperses et polydisperses. Aussi, en accord avec la littérature, nous avons observé une amplitude du signal de réponse des bulles monodisperses de 8 à 10 fois supérieure à celle des bulles polydisperses, pour une même concentration in vitro. Il a également été possible d observer une plus faible incertitude dans le suivi du pic de résonance des bulles et une plus petite largeur de bande pour la population de bulles monodisperses. Enfin, en utilisant une approche originale dite d imagerie matricielle par ultrasons, développée à l Institut Langevin, la réponse acoustique de la population lyophilisée monodispersée et polydispersée a été évaluée dans un fantôme simulant les tissus. Les résultats préliminaires renforcent les conclusions des mesures acoustiques menées dans la cellule centimétrique et le canal millimétrique, dans lesquelles la population monodisperse présente une largeur de bande significativement réduite par rapport à la grande largeur de bande de la population polydisperse. Le présent travail a permis le développement d une nouvelle technique pour lyophiliser des microbulles monodispersées sans dégrader leurs propriétés géométriques et acoustiques. Ainsi, nous avons proposé une nouvelle génération d agents de contraste ultrasonores se présentant sous la forme d une poudre lyophilisée stable qui peut être transportée et stockée pendant des mois et remise en suspension pour être utilisée dans des applications cliniques.

The processes by which anisotropic colloidal and nanoscale particles may come together to form ordered monodisperse structures are not well understood. The canonical example of such a system is provided by the assembly of virus capsids, in which tens to thousands of particles of one or a few types assemble efficiently into ordered, highly symmetrical shells. Other examples include a wide variety of protein oligomers, and there is interest in producing analogous systems of synthetic particles. In this thesis I study the self-assembly of simple model particles, consisting of spheres decorated with attractive patches. I consider in detail the assembly of clusters of particles corresponding to the Platonic solids. For the majority of these structures assembly is found to be efficient over a wide range of parameter space. The optimal conditions represent a compromise between thermodynamic stability and kinetic accessibility. We consider two versions of the model, with and without constraints on the torsion angle of bound particles. In both cases the structures with triangular faces are found to assemble most easily. In the absence of torsional constraints dodecahedra will not assemble under any set of parameters as a result of the preferential formation of disordered aggregates. With torsional constraints included all of the Platonic solids assemble successfully and the behaviour of the model is considerably changed. In particular disordered aggregates become far less favourable. I explore possible methods of assembling larger structures, either via “hierarchical” assembly where small clusters are first assembled and then used as building blocks in another stage of assembly, or by a templating method in which an inner cluster acts as a template for a larger outer cluster. These approaches are studied using the “Virtual Move Monte Carlo” cluster move algorithm, the behaviour of which we examine in some detail.

Nanopartículas (NPs) que apresentam ressonância plasmon de superfície localizada (RPSL) são aplicáveis em diversas áreas como, por exemplo, em terapia e diagnóstico na área biomédica. Estudos e aplicações in vivo requerem que a banda plasmon (BP) ocorra na mesma região da janela terapêutica, entre 600 e 1000 nm. Esta condição pode ser atingida com a modulação da BP pelo controle da morfologia e da composição química das NPs. Os objetivos principais deste trabalho foram estudar métodos de síntese que permitissem obter maiores quantidades de materiais quando comparados aos métodos convencionais em meio aquoso, e conjuntamente avaliar os parâmetros de síntese para obter NPs com diferentes morfologias e composições almejando modular a BP para região de interesse. Obteve-se nanoesferas (NEs) de Au monodispersas com diâmetro médio de 9 nm por redução com oleilamina em solução concentrada de sais de ouro. Dispersibilidade em água com elevada estabilidade coloidal foi alcançada via um procedimento de troca de ligantes, substituindo as moléculas de oleilamina, presentes na superfície das NPs assim como sintetizadas, por moléculas de ácido 11-mecaptoundecanóico. Nanobastões (NBs) de Au (largura de 12 nm) com diferentes comprimentos (30-300 nm) foram obtidos em misturas incomuns das fases cristalinas fcc e hcp. Estes NBs apresentam duas BP no espectro UV-Vis-NIR, uma em 520 nm e outra banda alargada a partir de 800 nm atribuídas à RPSL transversal e longitudinal, respectivamente. Inicialmente, os NBs foram sintetizados utilizando oleilamina como agente redutor e surfactante, sendo posteriormente avaliado que a presença de álcool oleico ou trietilamina no meio mantiveram uma condição de crescimento-1D mantendo a forma dos nanomateriais. NEs de Ag foram obtidas em condições semelhantes às NEs de Au com a BP em torno de 420 nm. Obteve-se misturas de NEs e NBs de AuCu3 (NBs, com razão de aspecto de 3) em todas as condições estudadas, sendo posteriormente separadas. Duas BP foram observadas para os NBs de AuCu3 em 560 e 766 nm, atribuídas à ressonância transversal e longitudinal, respectivamente. NPs monodispersas de Cu1,8S com 10 nm e BP centradas em 1150 nm foram sintetizadas por injeção a quente. Uma tentativa de recobrimento com Au das NPs de Cu1,8S resultou em uma reação de substituição, formando NPs de Au2S, a qual não apresentou BP. Investigou-se sínteses de NPs Cu1,8S dopado com M (M = Fe, Al e Zn) e alguns resultados foram: i) todas amostras foram obtidas na fase digenita e com baixa dispersão de tamanho; ii) Al e Fe incorporaram na estrutura cristalina, mas aparentemente o Zn não incorporou; iii) a BP foi deslocada para maiores comprimentos de ondas em todas amostras. Em resumo, obteve-se NPs com BP na região de interesse, em quantidades maiores que as sínteses convencionais. Este trabalho contribui para a compreensão da ação de reagentes/condições experimentais sobre a composição e o controle morfológico das NPs (principalmente crescimento-1D). Ressalta-se, entre os estudos, a formação de NBs de Au na fase hcp, possibilitando futuros estudos de propriedades; o redshift da BP das NPs de Cu1,8S dopados que não eram esperados, sendo um resultado instigante para futuros estudos; e a efetiva modificação de superfície das NPs de Au que resultou em elevada estabilidade coloidal na faixa de pH entre 6 e 10, possibilitando futuras aplicações. / Nanoparticles (NPs) that present localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) enables several applications, for example, therapy and diagnosis in the biomedical area. In vivo studies and applications require that plasmon band occurs in the same region of the therapeutic window, between 600 and 1000 nm. This condition can be achieved with the plasmon band (PB) modulation by morphological and chemical composition control of the NPs. The main purpose of this work concerning to evaluate of the syntheses parameters to obtain NPs with different morphologies and compositions by using experimental procedures, which to enable reach larger NPs amounts than the conventional aqueous medium methods. Monodisperse Au nanospheres (NSs) with average diameter of 9 nm were obtained by reduction of gold salts in concentrated solutions by oleylamine. As-synthesized Au-NSs present oleylamine molecules onto the surface that it was replaced by 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid by using a ligand exchange procedure, resulting in the water-dispersible system with high colloidal stability. Au nanorods (NRs, 12 nm-width) with different lengths (30-300 nm) were synthesized. These NRs are an expressive result, because its present an unusual fcc and hcp crystalline phases mixtures. There is only one paper in the literature that reports the direct synthesis of Au-hcp nanostructure. The NRs dispersion show two PB in the UV-Vis-NIR spectrum at 520 nm and another large band starting in 800 nm attributed to transversal and longitudinal LSPR, respectively. Initially, the NRs were synthetized by using oleylamine as reducing agent and surfactant, and NPs with same shape were obtained in presence of oleyl alcohol or triethylamine as surfactant in the medium. Ag NSs were obtained in similar conditions of Au NSs with shape control, and LSPR band in 420 nm. Mixtures of NSs and NRs (aspect ratio of 3) of AuCu3 were obtained for all studied conditions, and separated by using a selective separation process. Two PB were observed for AuCu3 NRs at 560 and 766 nm, assigned to transversal and longitudinal resonance, respectively. Monodisperse Cu1,8S semiconductor NSs with 10 nm and PB centered in 1150 nm were synthetized via hot-injection, and attempts to cover them with Au resulted in a substitution reaction that lead the formation of Au2S NPs, which did not present PB. Syntheses of M-doped Cu1,8S NPs (M = Fe, Al e Zn) were investigated and some results were: i) all samples are digenite phase and presented low dispersivity of size; ii) Al and Fe were incorporate more effective into the crystal structure than Zn; iii) were observed redshift of PB for all samples. In summary, NPs with PB in the region of interest were obtained in greater amounts than the conventional syntheses. This thesis presents contributions to the understanding of experimental parameters that act on the compositional and morphological control of NPs (mainly 1D growth). It is emphasized among the studies: the formation of Au NRs in the hcp phase, enabling future studies of properties; the PB redshift of the doped Cu1,8S NPs that were not expected, however, this is a stimulating result for future studies; and an effective surface modification of the Au NPs that result in high colloidal stability in the pH range between 6 and 10, allowing for future applications.

Nanopartículas (NPs) que apresentam ressonância plasmon de superfície localizada (RPSL) são aplicáveis em diversas áreas como, por exemplo, em terapia e diagnóstico na área biomédica. Estudos e aplicações in vivo requerem que a banda plasmon (BP) ocorra na mesma região da janela terapêutica, entre 600 e 1000 nm. Esta condição pode ser atingida com a modulação da BP pelo controle da morfologia e da composição química das NPs. Os objetivos principais deste trabalho foram estudar métodos de síntese que permitissem obter maiores quantidades de materiais quando comparados aos métodos convencionais em meio aquoso, e conjuntamente avaliar os parâmetros de síntese para obter NPs com diferentes morfologias e composições almejando modular a BP para região de interesse. Obteve-se nanoesferas (NEs) de Au monodispersas com diâmetro médio de 9 nm por redução com oleilamina em solução concentrada de sais de ouro. Dispersibilidade em água com elevada estabilidade coloidal foi alcançada via um procedimento de troca de ligantes, substituindo as moléculas de oleilamina, presentes na superfície das NPs assim como sintetizadas, por moléculas de ácido 11-mecaptoundecanóico. Nanobastões (NBs) de Au (largura de 12 nm) com diferentes comprimentos (30-300 nm) foram obtidos em misturas incomuns das fases cristalinas fcc e hcp. Estes NBs apresentam duas BP no espectro UV-Vis-NIR, uma em 520 nm e outra banda alargada a partir de 800 nm atribuídas à RPSL transversal e longitudinal, respectivamente. Inicialmente, os NBs foram sintetizados utilizando oleilamina como agente redutor e surfactante, sendo posteriormente avaliado que a presença de álcool oleico ou trietilamina no meio mantiveram uma condição de crescimento-1D mantendo a forma dos nanomateriais. NEs de Ag foram obtidas em condições semelhantes às NEs de Au com a BP em torno de 420 nm. Obteve-se misturas de NEs e NBs de AuCu3 (NBs, com razão de aspecto de 3) em todas as condições estudadas, sendo posteriormente separadas. Duas BP foram observadas para os NBs de AuCu3 em 560 e 766 nm, atribuídas à ressonância transversal e longitudinal, respectivamente. NPs monodispersas de Cu1,8S com 10 nm e BP centradas em 1150 nm foram sintetizadas por injeção a quente. Uma tentativa de recobrimento com Au das NPs de Cu1,8S resultou em uma reação de substituição, formando NPs de Au2S, a qual não apresentou BP. Investigou-se sínteses de NPs Cu1,8S dopado com M (M = Fe, Al e Zn) e alguns resultados foram: i) todas amostras foram obtidas na fase digenita e com baixa dispersão de tamanho; ii) Al e Fe incorporaram na estrutura cristalina, mas aparentemente o Zn não incorporou; iii) a BP foi deslocada para maiores comprimentos de ondas em todas amostras. Em resumo, obteve-se NPs com BP na região de interesse, em quantidades maiores que as sínteses convencionais. Este trabalho contribui para a compreensão da ação de reagentes/condições experimentais sobre a composição e o controle morfológico das NPs (principalmente crescimento-1D). Ressalta-se, entre os estudos, a formação de NBs de Au na fase hcp, possibilitando futuros estudos de propriedades; o redshift da BP das NPs de Cu1,8S dopados que não eram esperados, sendo um resultado instigante para futuros estudos; e a efetiva modificação de superfície das NPs de Au que resultou em elevada estabilidade coloidal na faixa de pH entre 6 e 10, possibilitando futuras aplicações. / Nanoparticles (NPs) that present localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) enables several applications, for example, therapy and diagnosis in the biomedical area. In vivo studies and applications require that plasmon band occurs in the same region of the therapeutic window, between 600 and 1000 nm. This condition can be achieved with the plasmon band (PB) modulation by morphological and chemical composition control of the NPs. The main purpose of this work concerning to evaluate of the syntheses parameters to obtain NPs with different morphologies and compositions by using experimental procedures, which to enable reach larger NPs amounts than the conventional aqueous medium methods. Monodisperse Au nanospheres (NSs) with average diameter of 9 nm were obtained by reduction of gold salts in concentrated solutions by oleylamine. As-synthesized Au-NSs present oleylamine molecules onto the surface that it was replaced by 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid by using a ligand exchange procedure, resulting in the water-dispersible system with high colloidal stability. Au nanorods (NRs, 12 nm-width) with different lengths (30-300 nm) were synthesized. These NRs are an expressive result, because its present an unusual fcc and hcp crystalline phases mixtures. There is only one paper in the literature that reports the direct synthesis of Au-hcp nanostructure. The NRs dispersion show two PB in the UV-Vis-NIR spectrum at 520 nm and another large band starting in 800 nm attributed to transversal and longitudinal LSPR, respectively. Initially, the NRs were synthetized by using oleylamine as reducing agent and surfactant, and NPs with same shape were obtained in presence of oleyl alcohol or triethylamine as surfactant in the medium. Ag NSs were obtained in similar conditions of Au NSs with shape control, and LSPR band in 420 nm. Mixtures of NSs and NRs (aspect ratio of 3) of AuCu3 were obtained for all studied conditions, and separated by using a selective separation process. Two PB were observed for AuCu3 NRs at 560 and 766 nm, assigned to transversal and longitudinal resonance, respectively. Monodisperse Cu1,8S semiconductor NSs with 10 nm and PB centered in 1150 nm were synthetized via hot-injection, and attempts to cover them with Au resulted in a substitution reaction that lead the formation of Au2S NPs, which did not present PB. Syntheses of M-doped Cu1,8S NPs (M = Fe, Al e Zn) were investigated and some results were: i) all samples are digenite phase and presented low dispersivity of size; ii) Al and Fe were incorporate more effective into the crystal structure than Zn; iii) were observed redshift of PB for all samples. In summary, NPs with PB in the region of interest were obtained in greater amounts than the conventional syntheses. This thesis presents contributions to the understanding of experimental parameters that act on the compositional and morphological control of NPs (mainly 1D growth). It is emphasized among the studies: the formation of Au NRs in the hcp phase, enabling future studies of properties; the PB redshift of the doped Cu1,8S NPs that were not expected, however, this is a stimulating result for future studies; and an effective surface modification of the Au NPs that result in high colloidal stability in the pH range between 6 and 10, allowing for future applications.

Ce travail concerne principalement la détermination des propriétés acoustiques de mousses. Il s’agit d’un projet mené dans le cadre d’une collaboration entre une équipe de physico-chimie des mousses chargée de l’élaboration de matériaux modèles (laboratoire Navier UMR 8205 CNRS) et une équipe d’acousticiens chargée de l’étude de leurs propriétés acoustiques (laboratoire MSME UMR 8208 CNRS). Cette thèse s’articule essentiellement autour de trois parties principales, dont le contenu est résumé ci-dessous. 1) La première partie porte sur la génération de surfaces de réponse par des approximations polynomiales, dans le but de disposer d'un modèle intermédiaire entre le modèle éléments finis micro-macro et la réponse macroscopique. Au lieu d'appeler le modèle éléments finis systématiquement dans un travail d'optimisation, on a recourt à la surface de réponse qui contient l'information associée aux points de calcul éléments finis ainsi que les interpolations correspondantes. Ce manuscrit a été publié dans le journal AAA sous forme de communication rapide. 2) La deuxième partie porte sur la mise au point d'un modèle semi-analytique définit à partir d'une formule disponible pour prédire la perméabilité d'une plaque infinie percée par un trou de surface connue. Ce modèle, utilisé de manière appropriée, permet de calculer la perméabilité de mousses dont la taille de bulles est constante et le taux de fermeture de membranes variable. Des validations numériques par éléments finis et expérimentales sont proposées. L'article a été accepté pour publication dans la revue Physical Review E. 3) La troisième partie, porte sur un calcul éléments finis dans lequel un grand nombre de réalisations sont menées de manière à prendre en compte l'ensemble des combinaisons possibles lorsque on dispose de caractérisation expérimentales fines à l'échelle de la microstructure et que l'on souhaite connaitre la réponse de la mousse avec précision. Le manuscrit est en préparation et la revue visée pour ce dernier manuscrit est le journal Materials and Design. Une introduction et une conclusion générale complètent ces trois parties, et permettent de mettre en perspectives ces contributions par rapport à la littérature existante sur le sujet / This work mainly concerns the determination of the acoustic properties of foams. This is a project carried out as part of a collaboration between a team of physico-chemistry of foams in charge of the development of model materials (Navier laboratory UMR 8205 CNRS) and a team of acousticians responsible for the study of their acoustic properties (MSME laboratory UMR 8208 CNRS). This thesis is structured around three main parts, the content of which is summarized below. 1) The first part deals with the generation of response surfaces by polynomial approximations, in order to have an intermediate model between the micro-macro finite element model and the macroscopic response. Instead of calling the finite element model systematically in an optimization work, we use the response surface that contains the information associated with finite element calculation points and the corresponding interpolations. This manuscript was published in the AAA journal as a fast track publication. 2) The second part focuses on the development of a semi-analytical model defined from an available formula to predict the permeability of a circular orifice in a thin plate. This model, used in an appropriate way, makes it possible to calculate the permeability of foams with a constant bubble size but a tuned membrane content. Numerical validations by finite element computations are proposed. The article has been accepted for publication in the journal Physical Review E. 3) The third part deals with a finite element calculation in which a large number of realizations are carried out in order to take into account all the possible combinations when one has fine experimental characterization at the microstructure scale and that one seek to determine the properties of the foam with precision. The manuscript is in preparation and a possible journal for the publication of this manuscript is the journal Materials and Design. An introduction and a general conclusion complete these three parts, and make it possible to discuss these contributions

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Synthese monodisperser, multifunktionaler Poly(amidoamine) (PAAs). Die Klasse der PAAs ist besonders interessant für eine Anwendung im Bereich der Biomedizin, da sie meist nicht toxisch ist, eine sehr geringe Immunogenizität zeigt und eine erhöhte Zellmembranpermeabilität besitzt. Allerdings ist der Einsatz linearer PAAs bisher limitiert, da ihre Synthese nur den Zugang von hoch-polydispersen Systemen mit einer streng alternierenden oder statistischen Verteilung von Funktionalitäten erlaubt. Es ist daher von großem Interesse diese Polymerklasse durch die Möglichkeit eines sequenzdefinierten Aufbaus und der Integration von neuen Funktionalitäten zu verbessern. Um dies zu ermöglichen, wurden, vergleichbar mit der etablierten Festphasensynthese von Peptiden, schrittweise funktionale Disäure- und Diamin-Bausteine an ein polymeres Träger-Harz addiert. Der sequenzielle Aufbau ermöglicht die Synthese monodisperser PAAs und die Kontrolle über die Monomersequenz. Die Wahl der Monomer-Bausteine und ihrer Funktionalitäten kann dabei für jede Addition neu getroffen werden und entscheidet so über die Sequenz der Funktionalitäten im Polymerrückgrat. Die verwendete Chemie entspricht dabei der Standardpeptidchemie, so dass mit Hilfe eines Peptidsynthese-Automaten die Synthese vollständig automatisiert werden konnte. Die Verwendung spezieller Trägerharze, die bereits mit einem synthetischen Polymerblock wie PEO oder auch mit einem Peptid vorbeladen waren, erlaubt die direkte Synthese von PEO- und Peptid-PAA Blockcopolymeren. Da die hier dargestellten PAAs später auf ihre Eignung als multivalente Polykationen in der Gentherapie getestet werden sollten, wurden zunächst Bausteine gewählt, die den Einbau verschiedener Aminfunktionalitäten ermöglichen. Die Bausteine müssen dabei so gewählt sein, dass sie kompatibel sind mit der Chemie des Peptidsynthesizers und eine quantitative Addition ohne Neben- oder Abbruchreaktionen garantieren. Darüber hinaus ist der Einbau von Peptidsequenzen und Disulfid-Einheiten in die PAA-Kette möglich, die z. B. für einen selektiven Abbau des Polymers im Organismus genutzt werden können. Zusammenfassend lässt sich feststellen, dass die in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten PAA-Systeme großes Potenzial als nicht-virale Vektoren für die Gentransfektion bieten. Sie sind nicht toxisch und zeigen Zellaufnahme-Effizienzen von bis zu 77%. Die Gentransfereffizienz ist im Vergleich zu etablierten Polymer-Vektoren zwar noch sehr gering, aber die bisherigen Versuche zeigen bereits eine mögliche Ursache, nämlich die schlechte Freisetzung des Genmaterials innerhalb der Zelle. Eine Lösung dieses Problems bietet jedoch die weitere Modifizierung der PAA-Systeme durch den Einbau von Sollbruchstellen. Diese Sollbruchstellen ermöglichen einen programmierten Abbau des Polymers innerhalb der Zelle und damit sollte die Freisetzung des Genmaterials vom Träger deutlich erleichtert werden. Mögliche Bruchstellen sind z. B. enzymatisch gezielt spaltbare Peptideinheiten oder Disulfid-Einheiten, wie sie bereits als Bausteine für die PAA-Synthese vorgestellt wurden (vergl. Kapitel 4.4). Da nur innerhalb der Zelle ein reduzierendes elektrochemisches Potential besteht, werden z. B. Disulfid-Einheiten auch nur dort gespalten und bieten außerhalb der Zelle ausreichende Stabilität zum Erhalt der Polyplexstruktur. Neben einer Anwendung in der Gentherapie bieten die hier vorgestellten PAA-Systeme den Vorteil einer systematischen Untersuchung von Struktur-Eigenschafts-Beziehungen der Polyplexe. Es wurden verschiedene Zusammenhänge zwischen der chemischen Struktur der PAA-Segmente und der Art und Stärke der DNS-Komprimierung aufgezeigt. Die Komprimierungsstärke wiederum zeigte deutlichen Einfluss auf die Internalisierungsrate und damit auch Transfektionseffizienz. Darüber hinaus zeigte sich ein drastischer Einfluss des PEO-Blocks auf die Stabilisierung der Polyplexe sowie deren intrazelluläre Freisetzung bei Zusatz von Chloroquin. Dennoch bleiben aufgrund der Komplexität der Zusammenhänge noch viele Mechanismen der Transfektion unverstanden, und es muss Aufgabe folgender Arbeiten sein, das Potential der hier eingeführten monodispersen PAA-Systeme weiter auszuloten. So wäre z. B. eine Korrelation der Kettenlänge mit den Parametern der Polyplexbildung, der Zellaufnahme und Transfektionseffizienz von großem Interesse. Darüber hinaus bietet der Einbau von Sollbruchstellen wie kurzen Peptidsequenzen oder den hier bereits eingeführten Disulfid-Einheiten neue Möglichkeiten der gezielten Freisetzung und des programmierten Abbaus, die näher untersucht werden müssen. Neben der Anwendung im Bereich der Gentransfektion sind außerdem andere Gebiete für den Einsatz von monodispersen multifunktionalen PAAs denkbar, da diese kontrollierbare und einstellbare Wechselwirkungen ermöglichen. / Recently, linear poly(amidoamine)s (PAAs) have received considerable attention due to their excellent biocompatibility and ease of synthesis.[1] PAAs are multifunctional polymers, which often exhibit low inherent immunogenicity and reduced cyto- as well as hemotoxicity in contrast to established, cationic polymers such as poly(ethylene imines) (PEI) or poly(L-lysines) (PLL).[2] This makes PAAs highly suitable for biomedical and pharmacological applications in the fields of drug and gene delivery.[1,2] However, the full potential of these polymers cannot be accessed since the synthesis proceeds via an uncontrolled polyaddition reaction leading to ill-defined products with Mw/Mn ≥ 2. This does not only make rational design of polymer properties and the precise positioning of functionalities along the polymer backbone difficult, furthermore product registration becomes complicated because legislation requires increasingly more defined products. Here we present a novel synthesis route towards multifunctional, sequence-defined polyamides.[3] A fully automated, solid-phase polymer synthesis was developed and utilized to obtain linear PAA segments. These exhibit no molecular weight or chemical distributions due to their monodispersity (Mw/Mn = 1) and their controlled monomer sequence. The compatibility of the PAA-synthesis with the standard Fmoc/tBu solid-phase supported peptide synthesis has been preserved, making this route a versatile approach to peptide-PAA (Pep-PAA) and poly(ethylene oxide)-PAA (PEO-PAA) conjugates. Several Pep-PAA and PEO-PAA conjugates were synthesized, exhibiting PAA segments with different cationic functionalities. These conjugates were analyzed concerning their cytotoxicity showing very promising results. Additionally their potential to complex plasmid-DNA and to form so-called polyplexes for non-viral gene delivery was tested. A strong relationship between the monomer sequence and the polyplex structure was observed, depending on the balance and total amount of tertiary, secondary and primary amine functionalities within the PAA-segment. Moreover the monomer sequence has a strong influence on the biological properties such as the cell-internalization of polyplexes as well as the transfection activity. This clear correlation between the chemical assembly and the resulting biological properties may help to further the understanding of the mechanisms of gene delivery by polymeric carriers and hence to promote the rational design of better suited systems. Even if the transfection activity for the PAA-polpylexes might still be not comparable to the established “gold standard” PEI, their low level of toxicity and the possibility to improve the system by adjusting the monomer sequence shows great potential as carrier systems in drug or gene delivery.

Die vorliegende Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Herstellung und Charakterisierung einzelner Edelmetallnanopartikel-Cluster für die oberflächenverstärkte Raman-Streuung (engl. surface-enhanced Raman scattering; SERS). In Clustern treten stark lokalisierte Regionen mit sehr hohen Feldverstärkungen auf (engl. hot spots), die den SERS-Effekt extrem verstärken. In der Regel werden Metallnanopartikel in kolloidaler Suspension untersucht, so dass nur Aussagen über das gesamte Kolloid und nicht über einzelne Cluster getroffen werden können. Für die Identifizierung von Struktur-Eigenschafts-Korrelationen wurden in dieser Arbeit daher einzelne Cluster optisch und elektronenmikroskopisch charakterisiert. Der erste Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit beschreibt neue Ansätze zur Trennung von glasverkapselten SERS-Nanopartikel-Clustern mit Hilfe der Dichtegradientenzentrifugation sowie die Etablierung einer modifizierten Synthesevorschrift zur Herstellung von monodispersen Silbernanopartikeln. Der zweite Teil beschäftigt sich mit der optischen Charakterisierung einzelner SERS-Cluster und den dafür notwendigen experimentellen Umbauten eines bestehenden Versuchsaufbaus. Anschließend wird die oberflächenverstärkte Raman-Streuung von SERS-Clustern in Abhängigkeit der Polarisation gemessen und die lokalisierte Oberflächenplasmonenresonanz (engl. localized surface plasmon resonance; LSPR) von Nano- und Mikrostrukturen bestimmt.

No description available.

Cette thèse a pour objet d'étudier la rhéologie des mousses 2D. Des mousses monodisperses sont soumises à une déformation cyclique localisée en régime quasistatique. Un dispositif expérimental sollicite la mousse par gonflage et dégonflage d'une bulle centrale (BC) et suit l'évolution de la pression de la BC au cours du temps. Au gonflage, les expériences ont montré que BC choisit une direction d'ouverture privilégiée. L'analyse de sa forme montre un régime isotrope où la bulle est ronde puis un régime anisotrope où la bulle est de forme pointue de direction aléatoire. Les expériences ont montré que, durant les deux premiers cycles, des changements topologiques (T1) se produisent partout dans la mousse. Après ce régime transitoire, les T1 se produisent uniquement à proximité de la BC de façon ordonnée et réversible. Dans ce régime, après chaque cycle, l'énergie de la mousse est identique. Donc toute l'énergie injectée est dissipée par les T1. Le calcul de l'énergie injectée a permis d'en déduire l'énergie moyenne dissipée par un T1. Enfin, une analyse plus fine montre que le T1 a un effet sur les autres bulles de la mousse. Pour cela nous avons calculé, lors d'un T1, les fluctuations de pression des bulles par le logiciel Surface Evolver ainsi que leurs déplacements. L'analyse montre une réponse quadripolaire de la mousse au T1. L'influence de la distance au T1 a montré une atténuation des sauts de pression. Cette atténuation se rapproche à la fois d'une loi de puissance ou d'une exponentielle, sans que l'on ait pu discriminer les deux comportements. Le meilleur ajustement exponentiel donne une longueur d'écrantage de 2 diamètres de bulles quelle que soit la taille de la mousse.