O processamento térmico de alimentos visa garantir qualidade e inocuidade pela inativação de micro-organismos e enzimas. Geralmente ocorre sobreprocessamento, levando à perda de características nutricionais e sensoriais e à elevação de custos operacionais. Foi desenvolvida a modelagem matemática (modelos térmico, mássico, hidráulico e reativo) de um equipamento bitubular para o processamento térmico contínuo de um alimento líquido homogêneo em regime laminar difusivo, para determinação das distribuições de temperatura e letalidade. No modelo foram incorporados parâmetros para quantificar os efeitos das difusividades térmica e mássica efetivas na direção radial ao escoamento. O modelo contempla três seções: aquecimento; tubo de retenção e resfriamento, em que as seções de aquecimento e resfriamento são trocadores de calor modulares. Foram considerados os seguintes volumes de controle: alimento, tubo interno, fluido de utilidade, tubo externo, isolamento térmico e ar ambiente. Balanços diferenciais de energia e massa foram aplicados para modelar as trocas térmicas e a distribuição de micro-organismos, enzimas ou nutrientes. Condições de contorno foram aplicadas para manter a continuidade entre as seções e módulos. O modelo foi resolvido através do método de diferenças finitas, discretizando as componentes axiais e radiais. No estudo de caso foram feitas simulações para o processamento térmico de suco de amora, quantificando os efeitos dos parâmetros difusivos e das variáveis de processo sobre os atributos de qualidade nutricional (antocianina) e qualidade microbiológica (levedura). Na validação dos modelos térmico e mássico os efeitos de mistura e difusão na direção radial foram quantificados através do ajuste da condutividade térmica efetiva e número de Peclet modificado. Utilizou-se um pasteurizador em escala laboratorial e os fluidos: mistura glicerina/água 80% (newtoniano) e solução de CMC 1% (pseudoplástico) nas vazões de 10 a 50 L/h. Os resultados indicam que o modelo proposto representou satisfatoriamente as distribuições de temperaturas, letalidade e comportamento experimental com reduzida complexidade computacional. / The thermal processing ensures quality and safety by inactivation of micro-organisms and enzymes. Generally, over-processing occurs, resulting in sensorial and nutritional losses and operating costs increase. A mathematical model (thermal, mass, hydraulic and reactive) of a double-pipe pasteurizer has developed for the continuous thermal processing of a liquid food in laminar diffusive regime, to obtain the temperature and lethality distributions. Parameters to quantify the effects of thermal and mass effective diffusivities in the radial direction were incorporated in the model. The model comprises three zones: heating; holding tube and cooling, where the heating and cooling zones are modular double-pipe heat exchangers. The following control volumes were considered: food, inner tube, utility fluid, outer tube, thermal insulation and ambient air. Energy and mass differential balances were used for modeling the heat transfer and the destruction of micro-organisms, enzymes or nutrients. Boundary conditions were applied to maintain the continuity between zones and modules. The finite difference method was used to discretize the model in the axial and radial directions. A simulation study case for blueberry juice thermal processing was made, analyzing the effects of the diffusive parameters and processing variables of the thermal treatment in the nutritional quality (anthocyanin) and microbiological quality (yeasts) attributes. In the validations of the heat and mass models, the mixture and diffusive effects in the radial direction were quantified by adjusting the heat conductivity and the modified Peclet number. A laboratory scale pasteurizer was used with the following fluids: glycerin/water mixture 80% (newtonian) and CMC 1% solution (pseudoplastic) in flows rates between 10 and 50 L/h. The obtained results indicate that the proposed model successfully represented the temperature and lethality distributions and experimental behavior with reduced computational complexity.

Estudos aplicados ao processo de filtração tangencial têm sido o objetivo de muitos trabalhos devido a sua ampla capacidade de adequação aos mais diversos processos industriais. Os mecanismos de transferência associados a esse processo envolvem basicamente o escoamento em tubos permeáveis (ou membranas) com fenômenos de transferência de massa presentes junto à superfície. Esta tese de doutorado apresenta uma modelagem numérica capaz de representar o escoamento de fluidos newtonianos e não-newtonianos em tubos permeáveis aplicada ao processo de filtração tangencial, para os regimes de escoamento laminar e turbulento. No regime turbulento, utilizou-se o modelo de comprimento de mistura de Prandtl. O modelo numérico envolveu as equações de conservação da massa, da quantidade de movimento e das espécies químicas, acopladas a adequadas condições de fronteira. Em particular, por se tratar de um modelo numérico, analisou-se a discretização dos termos convectivos por meio da implementação de três esquemas: WACEB, CUBISTA e QUICKEST adaptativo. Os resultados produzidos pela implementação dos esquemas convectivos foram analisados por meio de comparações com resultados analíticos e experimentais da literatura, para regimes de escoamento laminar e turbulento. De acordo com as comparações realizadas, o esquema QUICKEST adaptativo apresentou melhor desempenho na modelagem desse escoamento. Diversas simulações numéricas geraram resultados, os quais foram comparados com expressões analíticas e dados experimentais da literatura e com dados produzidos pelo laboratório do Núcleo de Engenharia Térmica e Fluidos (NETeF) da USP São Carlos. Verificou-se, assim, que o modelo matemático produziu resultados compatíveis com o fenômeno estudado, tendo-se, portanto, uma ferramenta para descrição do problema convectivo mássico do escoamento em tubos permeáveis. / Studies applied to the crossflow filtration process have been the goal of several researches due to its large capacity for adaptation to the various industrial processes. The mechanism of transfer associated with this process basically involves fiows in permeable tubes (or membranes) with the phenomenon of mass transfer on the surface. This doctoral thesis presents a numerical modeling able to represent the fiow of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fiuids in permeable tubes applied to the process of crossflow filtration, in laminar and turbulent flow regimes. In the turbulent regime the Prandtl mixing length model was used. The numerical model involved the mass conservation, momentum conservation and mass transport equations coupled to the appropriate boundary conditions. In particular, as it is a numerical model, the discretization of convective terms was analyzed through the implementation of three schemes: WACEB, CUBISTA and adaptative QUICKEST. The results produced by the implementation of the convective schemes were analyzed through comparisons with experimental and analytical results from the literature, for laminar and turbulent flow regImes. According to the comparisons made, adaptative QUICKEST scheme showed the best performance in the modeling in this flow. Several numerical simulations generated results, which were compared with experimental data and analytical expressions of the literature and with data produced by the laboratory of the Center of Thermal Thermal and Fluids Engineering (NETeF) of the EESC- USP/São Cados. It was possible to verify, that the mathematical model produced results consistent with the phenomenon studied, and can be considered a tool for the description of the mass convective problem flow in permeavel tubes.

The study of non-Newtonian flow is presents itself as relevant in bioengineering field, specially for design of devices that conduct blood, as arterial bypass grafts. Improvements in reducing energy dissipation and blood cell damage caused by artificial flows can be achieved by using numerical simulation and optimization methods. Thus, the present work proposes the study of design channels for steady, incompressible non-Newtonian flow, by using Topology Optimization Method based on the density method. The fluid flow is modeled with the Navier-Stokes equations coupled with Carreau-Yasuda constitutive equation for the dynamic viscosity to take into account the effects of the non-Newtonian blood properties. The Topology Optimization Method distributes regions of solid and fluid, given a volume constraint, within a specified domain in order to obtain a geometry and layout that minimizes energy dissipation, shear stress and vorticity by using the material pseudo-density as design variable. To apply this method to fluidic systems design, a fictional porous media based on Darcy equation is introduced. The flow model is implemented in its discrete form by using the Finite Element Method through the OpenSource platform FEniCS, applied to automate the solution of mathematical models based on differential equations. The optimization problem is solved by using the library DOLFIN-adjoint and IPOpt optimizer. Optimized topologies of channels for blood flow, focusing in arterial bypass grafts, are presented to illustrate the proposed method. / O estudo de escoamento de fluidos não-Newtonianos apresenta-se relevante no campo de bioengenharia, em especial no projeto de dispositivos para condução de sangue, como bypass arterial. Melhorias na redução de dissipação de energia e no dano às células sanguíneas causados por fluxos artificiais podem ser obtidas através do uso de técnicas de simulação e otimização numéricas. Deste modo, este trabalho propõe o estudo do projeto de canais para escoamentos incompressíveis em regime permanente de fluidos não-Newtonianos através do Método de Otimização Topológica baseado no método de densidade. O escoamento é modelado com as equações de Navier-Stokes acopladas com a equação constitutiva de Carreau-Yasuda para a viscosidade dinâmica, para que sejam considerados os efeitos das propriedades não-Newtonianas do sangue. O Método de Otimização Topológica distribui regiões de sólido e fluido, dada uma restrição de volume, dentro de um domínio especificado de modo a obter uma geometria e configuração que minimize a dissipação de energia, tensão de cisalhamento e vorticidade, utilizando a pseudo-densidade do material como variável de projeto. Para aplicar este método a sistemas fluidos, um meio poroso fictício, baseado na equação de Darcy, é introduzido. O modelo de escoamento é implementado em sua forma discreta utilizando o Método de Elementos Finitos através da plataforma OpenSource FEniCS, aplicada para automatizar a solução dos modelos matemáticos baseados em equações diferenciais, e o problema de otimização é resolvido utilizando a biblioteca DOLFIN-adjoint e otimizador IPOpt. Topologias otimizadas de canais para fluxo de sangue, com foco em bypass arterial, são apresentadas para ilustrar o método proposto.

Estudos aplicados ao processo de filtração tangencial têm sido o objetivo de muitos trabalhos devido a sua ampla capacidade de adequação aos mais diversos processos industriais. Os mecanismos de transferência associados a esse processo envolvem basicamente o escoamento em tubos permeáveis (ou membranas) com fenômenos de transferência de massa presentes junto à superfície. Esta tese de doutorado apresenta uma modelagem numérica capaz de representar o escoamento de fluidos newtonianos e não-newtonianos em tubos permeáveis aplicada ao processo de filtração tangencial, para os regimes de escoamento laminar e turbulento. No regime turbulento, utilizou-se o modelo de comprimento de mistura de Prandtl. O modelo numérico envolveu as equações de conservação da massa, da quantidade de movimento e das espécies químicas, acopladas a adequadas condições de fronteira. Em particular, por se tratar de um modelo numérico, analisou-se a discretização dos termos convectivos por meio da implementação de três esquemas: WACEB, CUBISTA e QUICKEST adaptativo. Os resultados produzidos pela implementação dos esquemas convectivos foram analisados por meio de comparações com resultados analíticos e experimentais da literatura, para regimes de escoamento laminar e turbulento. De acordo com as comparações realizadas, o esquema QUICKEST adaptativo apresentou melhor desempenho na modelagem desse escoamento. Diversas simulações numéricas geraram resultados, os quais foram comparados com expressões analíticas e dados experimentais da literatura e com dados produzidos pelo laboratório do Núcleo de Engenharia Térmica e Fluidos (NETeF) da USP São Carlos. Verificou-se, assim, que o modelo matemático produziu resultados compatíveis com o fenômeno estudado, tendo-se, portanto, uma ferramenta para descrição do problema convectivo mássico do escoamento em tubos permeáveis. / Studies applied to the crossflow filtration process have been the goal of several researches due to its large capacity for adaptation to the various industrial processes. The mechanism of transfer associated with this process basically involves fiows in permeable tubes (or membranes) with the phenomenon of mass transfer on the surface. This doctoral thesis presents a numerical modeling able to represent the fiow of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fiuids in permeable tubes applied to the process of crossflow filtration, in laminar and turbulent flow regimes. In the turbulent regime the Prandtl mixing length model was used. The numerical model involved the mass conservation, momentum conservation and mass transport equations coupled to the appropriate boundary conditions. In particular, as it is a numerical model, the discretization of convective terms was analyzed through the implementation of three schemes: WACEB, CUBISTA and adaptative QUICKEST. The results produced by the implementation of the convective schemes were analyzed through comparisons with experimental and analytical results from the literature, for laminar and turbulent flow regImes. According to the comparisons made, adaptative QUICKEST scheme showed the best performance in the modeling in this flow. Several numerical simulations generated results, which were compared with experimental data and analytical expressions of the literature and with data produced by the laboratory of the Center of Thermal Thermal and Fluids Engineering (NETeF) of the EESC- USP/São Cados. It was possible to verify, that the mathematical model produced results consistent with the phenomenon studied, and can be considered a tool for the description of the mass convective problem flow in permeavel tubes.

La détection ainsi que l’analyse des ondes gravitationnelles émises par les systèmes binaires d’objets compacts reposent sur notre capacité à faire des prédictions précises au sein de la théorie de la relativité générale. Dans cette thèse, nous utilisons la théorie post-newtonienne (PN), et en particulier le formalisme connu sous le nom de Blanchet-Damour-Iyer, afin d’étudier de tels systèmes. La finalité des différents calculs réalisés au sein de cette thèse est d’obtenir la phase du signal gravitationnel à l’ordre 4,5PN, et les résultats que nous présentons nous rapprochent fortement de cet objectif. Tout d’abord, nous calculons les sillages d’ondes à l’ordre 3 dans le champ radiatif, ce qui nous permet d’obtenir le coefficient 4,5PN du flux d’énergie émis par des systèmes binaires compacts sans spin dans le cas d’orbites circulaires. Puis, nous calculons la dernière ambiguïté apparaissant dans les équations du mouvement de deux corps compacts sans spin à l’ordre 4PN, ce qui nous permet d’obtenir la première dérivation à partir de principes fondamentaux de ce résultat. Nous étudions alors en détail les différentes quantités conservées générées par cette dynamique. Enfin,nous présentons un premier résultat préliminaire du quadrupôle de masse source à l’ordre 4PN, ce qui constitue l’une des étapes cruciales dans l’obtention de la phase à l’ordre 4.5PN. / The detection and the analysis of gravitational waves emitted by compact binary systems rely on our ability to make accurate predictions within general relativity. In this thesis, we use the post-Newtonian (PN) formalism, and in particular the Blanchet-Damour-Iyer framework, to study the dynamics and the emission of gravitational waves of such systems. The different computations that we performed are motivated by our aim to obtain the phase of the gravitational wave signal at the 4.5PN order. In that regard, crucial steps have been achieved within this thesis. First of all, we compute the third-order tail effects in the radiation field, yielding the 4.5PN coefficient of the energy flux for binaries of non-spinning objects in circular orbits. Besides, we determine the remaining ambiguity of the 4PN Lagrangian of two spinless compact bodies. This result completes the first derivation from first principles of the 4PN equations of motion. Then we comprehensively study the conserved quantities of the 4PN dynamics. Finally, we provide a preliminary result of the 4PN source mass quadrupole, which constitutes one of the crucial steps towards the computation of the 4.5PN phase.

Το αντικείμενο της εργασίας αυτής είναι η μελέτη των μετανευτώνειων προσεγγίσεων στο πλαίσιο της Γενικής Σχετικότητας, με έμφαση στους αστέρες νετρονίων. Λόγω του οτι, η μελέτη των αστέρων νετρονίων βασίζεται στην υδροδυναμική περιγραφή της ύλης, το κύριο ενδιαφέρον μας αφορά στον τρόπο που εισάγονται οι μετανευτώνειες προσεγγίσεις στις υδροδυναμικές εξισώσεις της Γενικής Σχετικότητας. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται ορισμένα θεωρητικά στοιχεία γύρω απο φυσικά χαρακτηριστικά και τις ιδιότητες των συμπαγών αστέρων. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα γενικά χαρακτηριστικά των καταστατικών εξισώσεων των συμπαγών αστέρων, με έμφαση στην πολυτροπική καταστατική εξίσωση. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται η θεωρία των μετανευτώνειων προσεγγίσεων, καθώς και οι μετανευτώνειες εξισώσεις πρώτης τάξης της υδροδυναμικής, στη Γενική Σχετικότητα όπως εισήχθησαν απο τον Chandrasekhar. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται η διαταρακτική μέθοδος που χρησιμοποιείται απο τους Fahlman και Anand, για την μελέτη των περιστρεφόμενων πολυτρόπων στο πλαίσιο της πρώτης μετανευτώνειας προσέγγισης στη Γενική Σχετικότητα. Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται η μετανευτώνεια προσέγγιση δεύτερης τάξης όπως διατυπώθηκε απο τους Chandrasekhar και Nutku. Στο έκτο, και τελευταίο, κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται ένα υπολογιστικό αλγεβρικό πακέτο για μετανευτώνειους υπολογισμούς στη Γενική Σχετικότητα, το PROCRUSTES. Με την βοήθεια του πακέτου αυτού υπολογίσαμε διάφορες ποσότητες στη δεύτερη μετανευτώνεια προσέγγιση, όπως τον τανυστή ενέργειας - ορμής, 𝑇𝑖𝑗, τον τανυστή Ricci, 𝑅𝑖𝑗, τις εξισώσεις κίνησης, Τ𝑖𝑗;𝑗 = 0, και άλλες. Το PROCRUSTES είναι ένα πολύ χρήσιμο εργαλείο στη μετανευτώνεια μελέτη καθώς μπορεί κανείς να παράξει τις περίπλοκες εκφράσεις διαφόρων ποσοτήτων σε ελάχιστο χρόνο και χωρίς την πιθανότητα λάθους. Επίσης, με την βοήθεια του πακέτου αυτού, υπολογίσαμε τις αναλυτικές εκφράσεις των εξισώσεως κίνησης, Τ𝑖𝑗;𝑗 = 0, στην δεύτερη μετανευτώνεια προσέγγιση. Με κατάλληλη μετατροπή των εκφράσεων αυτών, μπορούμε να εφαρμόσουμε την μέθοδο των Fahlman και Anand, με σκοπό την μελέτη των περιστερόμενων πολυτρόπων στη μετανευτώνεια προσέγγιση δεύτερης τάξης. Στο τέλος της εργασίας παρατίθεται ένα συμπλήρωμα με τη δομή του προγράμματος και ορισμένες απο τις ποσότητες που υπολογίστηκαν στο πλαίσιο της εργασίας. / The main subject of my master thesis is the study of,the post-Newtonian approximations (PNA) in General Relativity (G-R), mainly those that concern the neutron stars. Owing to the study of neutron stars is on the hydrodynamic description of matter, our main interest lies uponthe way the PNA affects the hydrodynamic equations of G-R. In the first chapter there is presented the main theory around the physical attributes of compact stars. The second chapter reffers to the general features of the equations of state (EoS) of compact stars, giving emphasis to the polytropic EoS. In the yhird chapter, there is presented the theory of the PNA. There are also presented the the hydrodynamic equations in the PNA as the were introduced by Chandrasekhar. The fourth chapter is dedicated to the presentation of the method that was introduced by Fahlman and Anand, on the study of rotating polytropes in the PNA to G-R. The fifth chapter focuses on the second PNA as it formulated by Chandrasekhar and Nutku. During the sixth and final chapter there is presented a computer algebra package for post-Newtonian calculations in G-R, the PROCRUSTES. Whith the aid of thiw package, we calculated several quantities in the second PNA, as for example the E-M tensor 𝑇𝑖𝑗„ the Ricci tensor 𝑅𝑖𝑗 and the equations of motion (EoM) Τ𝑖𝑗 ;𝑗 = 0. PROCRUSTES is a very useful tool for the post-Newtonian study, as someone can produce the compicated equations of several quantities in no time and eliminating the possibility of making some mistake during the calculation. Moreover, using PROCRUSTES we calculated the expressions of the EoM’s in the second PNA. Under appropriate transformation of these expressions, we are able to apply the method of Fahlman and Anand onto these equations with a view to the study of rotating polytropes in the second PNA. At the end of this work there is quoted a supplement with the structure of the programm we used, along with some of the quantities that were calculated during this work.

The birth of a child is a life-changing event in a woman's life. However, women's subjective experiences of giving birth have not been extensively researched, while the literature reflects an inherent realist approach. This has resulted in a decontextualised account of this critical event in women's lives. This conceptual study discusses the body of knowledge on the birthing experience from a widened perspective that includes not only the birthing woman, but also the people she interacts with and the context in which birth is embedded. The study comments on the way birth is managed in technological society and how its inherent Newtonian epistemology impacts on a woman's experience of birth. Ecosystemic epistemology is presented as an alternative approach which provides an holistic understanding of this experience. A reconceptualisation is proposed which acknowledges the social construction of birth. Lastly, the alternative birth movement as a more holistic approach to birth is discussed

Thesis (MScEng (Mathematical Sciences. Applied Mathematics))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / An analytical modelling procedure for predicting the streamwise pressure gradient for steady laminar incompressible flow of a Newtonian fluid through homogeneous isotropic granular porous media is introduced. The modelling strategy involves the spatial volume averaging of a statistical representative portion of the porous domain to obtain measurable macroscopic quantities from which macroscopic transport equations can be derived. A simple pore-scale model is introduced to approximate the actual complex granular porous microstructure through rectangular cubic geometry. The sound physical principles on which the modelling procedure is based avoid the need for redundant empirical coefficients. The model is generalized to predict the rheological flow behaviour of non-Newtonian purely viscous power law fluids by introducing the dependence of the apparent viscosity on the shear rate through the wall shear stress. The field of application of the Newtonian model is extended to predict the flow behaviour in fluidized beds by adjusting the Darcy velocity to incorporate the relative velocity of the solid phase. The Newtonian model is furthermore adjusted to predict fluid flow through Fontainebleau sandstone by taking into account the effect of blocked throats at very low porosities. The analytical model as well as the model generalizations for extended applicability is verified through comparison with other analytical and semi-empirical models and a wide range of experimental data from the literature. The accuracy of the predictive analytical model reveals to be highly acceptable for most engineering designs.

[pt] Este trabalho apresenta um estudo do escoamento num meio poroso com fronteira livre. Modela-se o escoamento através da Teoria Contínua de Misturas para um meio homogêneo, isotrópico, rígido, estacionário e saturado com fluido newtoniano incompressível, obtendo-se a equação diferencial que rege o fenômeno de percolação. Considera-se a geometria do meio poroso retangular e reformula-se o problema em desigualdade variacional Sobre domínio conhecido via transformada de Baiocchi, onde se elimina a necessidade de se saber a fronteira livre a priori. Discretiza-se o problema. pelo método de Galerkin e emprega-se o Métodos dos Elementos Finitos para aproximar o espaço de funções envolvido. Resolve-se o Problema Linear de Complementaridade utilizando um algoritmo baseado num Método de Continuação para Desigualdades Variacionais para encontrar a região de escoamento. / [en] In this work, the Steady flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid in a homogeneous, isotropic, rigid and saturated media is modeled by using the Continuum Theory of Mixtures. Due to a Baiocchi transformation, the seepage problem for a rectangular porous media is rewritten as a variational inequality, for which the a priori knowledge of the free boundary is not necessary. A Galerkin procedure is employed for the discretization of the problem and the related function spaces are approximated by means of Finite Element Techniques. An algorithm based upon a Continuation Method for variational inequalities applied for the determination of the free boundary.

Orientador: Geraldo de Freitas Maciel / Resumo: Esta tese de doutorado traz uma abordagem experimental sobre mecanismos de geração, desenvolvimento e propagação em canal de instabilidade na superfície livre de um escoamento de fluido não-Newtoniano. Estas instabilidades, quando evoluem para um padrão estável, exibem comprimento, amplitude e celeridade bem definidos, sendo denominadas roll waves. Na literatura existe uma lacuna no que diz respeito às medições destes fenômenos em condições controladas de laboratório, e com pouquíssimos registros, quando presentes em eventos naturais. Assim, buscou-se neste trabalho projetar e implementar um aparato experimental operacional e de baixo custo com o objetivo de gerar e aferir tais instabilidades, sob condições controladas e sem a influência de vibrações externas (canalete posicionado sobre uma mesa inercial), seguindo metodologia de ensaio proposta e testada. O fluido teste utilizado foi o gel de carbopol 996, que apresentou boa estabilidade e propriedades reológicas aderentes ao modelo de Herschel-Bulkley, tal qual as lamas encontradas em pés de barragens, lamas oriundas de fluxos hiperconcentrados ou de corridas propriamente ditas. Um sistema de sucção-recalque, através de uma bomba hidráulica de cavidade progressiva, impulsionava o gel para o canal de ensaio, garantindo fluxo contínuo do material em regime de recirculação. Para gerar as instabilidades na superfície livre, foi imposta, a montante do canal, uma perturbação, por meio de um pulso de ar controlado em intensidade e... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Doutor