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Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / In recent times significant public attention has been drawn to the topic of combustion. This has been due to the fact that combustion is the underlying mechanism of several key challenges to modern society: climate change, energy security (finite reserves of fossil fuels) and air pollution. The further development of combustion science is undoubtedly necessary to find improved solutions to manage these combustion science related challenges in the near and long term future. Combustion is essentially an exothermic process, this exothermicity or heat release essentially occurs at small scales, by small scales it meant these scales are small relative to the fluid length scales, for example heat release layer thicknesses in flames are typically much less than the fluid integral length scales. As heat release occurs at small scales this means that in turbulent combustion the small scales of the turbulence (which can be of the order of the heat release layer thickness) can possibly interact and influence the heat release and thus chemistry of the flame reaction zone. Premixed combustion is a combustion mode where the fuel and oxidiser are completely premixed prior to the flame reaction zone, this mode of combustion has been shown to be a promising method to maximise combustion efficiency and minimise pollutant formation. The continued and further application of premixed combustion to practical applications is limited by the current understanding of turbulent premixed combustion, these limitations in understanding are linked to the specific flame phenomena that can significantly influence premixed combustion in a combustion device, examples of such phenomena are: flame flashback, flame extinction and fuel consumption rate – all phenomena that are influenced by the interaction of the small scales of turbulence and chemistry. It is the study and investigation of the interaction of turbulence and chemistry at the small scales (termed finite-rate chemistry) in turbulent premixed flames that is the aim of this thesis which is titled “Finite-rate chemistry effects in turbulent premixed combustion”. Two very closely related experimental burner geometries have been developed in this thesis: the Piloted Premixed Jet Burner (PPJB) and the Premixed Jet Burner (PJB). Both feature an axisymmetric geometry and exhibit a parabolic like flow field. The PPJB and PJB feature a small 4mm diameter central jet from which a high velocity lean-premixed methane-air mixture issues. Surrounding the central jet in the PPJB is a 23.5mm diameter pilot of stoichiometric methane-air products, the major difference between the PPJB and the PJB is that the PJB does not feature a stoichiometric pilot. The pilot in the PPJB provides a rich source of combustion intermediates and enthalpy which promotes initial ignition of the central jet mixture. Surrounding both the central jet and pilot is a large diameter hot coflow of combustion products. It is possible to set the temperature of the hot coflow to the adiabatic flame temperature of the central jet mixture to simulate straining and mixing against and with combustion products without introducing complexities such as quenching and dilution from cold air. By parametrically increasing the central jet velocity in the PPJB it is possible to show that there is a transition from a thin conical flame brush to a flame that exhibits extinction and re-ignition effects. The flames that exhibit extinction and re-ignition effects have a luminous region near the jet exit termed the initial ignition region. This is followed by a region of reduced luminosity further downstream termed the extinction region. Further downstream the flame luminosity increases this region is termed the re-ignition region. For the flames that exhibit extinction and re-ignition it is proposed that intense turbulent mixing and high scalar dissipation rates drives the initial extinction process after the influence of the pilot has ceased (x/D>10). Re-ignition is proposed to occur downstream where turbulent mixing and scalar dissipation rates have decreased allowing robust combustion to continue. As the PJB does not feature a pilot, the flame stabilisation structure is quite different to the PPJB. The flame structure in the PJB is essentially a lifted purely premixed flame, which is an experimental configuration that is also quite unique. A suite of laser diagnostic measurements has been parametrically applied to flames in the PPJB and PJB. Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) has been utilised to measure the mean and fluctuating radial and axial components of velocity at a point, with relevant time and length scale information being extracted from these measurements. One of the most interesting results from the LDV measurements is that in the PPJB the pilot delays the generation of high turbulence intensities, for flames that exhibit extinction the rapid increase of turbulence intensity after the pilot corresponds to the start of the extinction region. Using the LDV derived turbulence characteristics and laminar flame properties and plotting these flames on a traditional turbulent regime diagram indicates that all of the flames examined should fall in the so call distributed reaction regime. Planar imaging experiments have been conducted for flames using the PPJB and PJB to investigate the spatial structure of the temperature and selected minor species fields. Results from two different simultaneous 2D Rayleigh and OH PLIF experiments and a simultaneous 2D Rayleigh, OH PLIF and CH2O PLIF experiment are reported. For all of the flames examined in the PPJB and PJB a general trend of decreasing conditional mean temperature gradient with increasing turbulence intensity is observed. This indicates that a trend of so called flame front thickening with increased turbulence levels occurs for the flames examined. It is proposed that the mechanism for this flame front thickening is due to eddies penetrating and embedding in the instantaneous flame front. In the extinction region it is found that the OH concentration is significantly reduced compared to the initial ignition region. In the re-ignition region it is found that the OH level increases again indicating that an increase in the local reaction rate is occurring. In laminar premixed flames CH2O occurs in a thin layer in the reaction zone, it is found for all of the flames examined that the CH2O layer is significantly thicker than the laminar flame. For the high velocity flames beyond x/D=15, CH2O no longer exist in a distinct layer but rather in a near uniform field for the intermediate temperature regions. Examination of the product of CH2O and OH reveals that the heat release in the initial ignition region is high and rapidly decreases in the extinction region, an increase in the heat release further downstream is observed corresponding to the re-ignition region. This finding corresponds well with the initial hypothesis of an extinction region followed by a re-ignition region that was based on the mean chemiluminescence images. Detailed simultaneous measurement of major and minor species has been conducted using the line Raman-Rayleigh-LIF technique with CO LIF and crossed plane-OH PLIF at Sandia National Laboratories. By measuring all major species it is also possible to define a mixture fraction for all three streams of the PPJB. Using these three mixture fractions it was found that the influence of the pilot in the PPJB decays very rapidly for all but the lowest velocity flames. It was also found that for the high velocity flames exhibiting extinction, a significant proportion of the coflow fluid is entrained into the central jet combustion process at both the extinction region and re-ignition regions. The product of CO and OH conditional on temperature is shown to be proportion to the net production rate of CO2 for certain temperature ranges. By examining the product of CO and OH the hypothesis of an initial ignition region followed by an extinction region then a re-ignition region for certain PPJB flames has been further validated complementing the [CH2O][OH] imaging results. Numerical modelling results using the transported composition probability density function (TPDF) method coupled to a conventional Reynolds averaged Naiver Stokes (RANS) solver are shown in this thesis to successfully predict the occurrence of finite-rate chemistry effects for the PM1 PPJB flame series. To calculate the scalar variance and the degree of finite-rate chemistry effects correctly, it is found that a value of the mixing constant ( ) of approximately 8.0 is required. This value of is much larger than the standard excepted range of 1.5-2.3 for that has been established for non-premixed combustion. By examining the results of the RANS turbulence model in a non-reacting variable density jet, it is shown that the primary limitation of the predictive capability of the TPDF-RANS method is the RANS turbulence model when applied to variable density flows.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / In recent times significant public attention has been drawn to the topic of combustion. This has been due to the fact that combustion is the underlying mechanism of several key challenges to modern society: climate change, energy security (finite reserves of fossil fuels) and air pollution. The further development of combustion science is undoubtedly necessary to find improved solutions to manage these combustion science related challenges in the near and long term future. Combustion is essentially an exothermic process, this exothermicity or heat release essentially occurs at small scales, by small scales it meant these scales are small relative to the fluid length scales, for example heat release layer thicknesses in flames are typically much less than the fluid integral length scales. As heat release occurs at small scales this means that in turbulent combustion the small scales of the turbulence (which can be of the order of the heat release layer thickness) can possibly interact and influence the heat release and thus chemistry of the flame reaction zone. Premixed combustion is a combustion mode where the fuel and oxidiser are completely premixed prior to the flame reaction zone, this mode of combustion has been shown to be a promising method to maximise combustion efficiency and minimise pollutant formation. The continued and further application of premixed combustion to practical applications is limited by the current understanding of turbulent premixed combustion, these limitations in understanding are linked to the specific flame phenomena that can significantly influence premixed combustion in a combustion device, examples of such phenomena are: flame flashback, flame extinction and fuel consumption rate – all phenomena that are influenced by the interaction of the small scales of turbulence and chemistry. It is the study and investigation of the interaction of turbulence and chemistry at the small scales (termed finite-rate chemistry) in turbulent premixed flames that is the aim of this thesis which is titled “Finite-rate chemistry effects in turbulent premixed combustion”. Two very closely related experimental burner geometries have been developed in this thesis: the Piloted Premixed Jet Burner (PPJB) and the Premixed Jet Burner (PJB). Both feature an axisymmetric geometry and exhibit a parabolic like flow field. The PPJB and PJB feature a small 4mm diameter central jet from which a high velocity lean-premixed methane-air mixture issues. Surrounding the central jet in the PPJB is a 23.5mm diameter pilot of stoichiometric methane-air products, the major difference between the PPJB and the PJB is that the PJB does not feature a stoichiometric pilot. The pilot in the PPJB provides a rich source of combustion intermediates and enthalpy which promotes initial ignition of the central jet mixture. Surrounding both the central jet and pilot is a large diameter hot coflow of combustion products. It is possible to set the temperature of the hot coflow to the adiabatic flame temperature of the central jet mixture to simulate straining and mixing against and with combustion products without introducing complexities such as quenching and dilution from cold air. By parametrically increasing the central jet velocity in the PPJB it is possible to show that there is a transition from a thin conical flame brush to a flame that exhibits extinction and re-ignition effects. The flames that exhibit extinction and re-ignition effects have a luminous region near the jet exit termed the initial ignition region. This is followed by a region of reduced luminosity further downstream termed the extinction region. Further downstream the flame luminosity increases this region is termed the re-ignition region. For the flames that exhibit extinction and re-ignition it is proposed that intense turbulent mixing and high scalar dissipation rates drives the initial extinction process after the influence of the pilot has ceased (x/D>10). Re-ignition is proposed to occur downstream where turbulent mixing and scalar dissipation rates have decreased allowing robust combustion to continue. As the PJB does not feature a pilot, the flame stabilisation structure is quite different to the PPJB. The flame structure in the PJB is essentially a lifted purely premixed flame, which is an experimental configuration that is also quite unique. A suite of laser diagnostic measurements has been parametrically applied to flames in the PPJB and PJB. Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) has been utilised to measure the mean and fluctuating radial and axial components of velocity at a point, with relevant time and length scale information being extracted from these measurements. One of the most interesting results from the LDV measurements is that in the PPJB the pilot delays the generation of high turbulence intensities, for flames that exhibit extinction the rapid increase of turbulence intensity after the pilot corresponds to the start of the extinction region. Using the LDV derived turbulence characteristics and laminar flame properties and plotting these flames on a traditional turbulent regime diagram indicates that all of the flames examined should fall in the so call distributed reaction regime. Planar imaging experiments have been conducted for flames using the PPJB and PJB to investigate the spatial structure of the temperature and selected minor species fields. Results from two different simultaneous 2D Rayleigh and OH PLIF experiments and a simultaneous 2D Rayleigh, OH PLIF and CH2O PLIF experiment are reported. For all of the flames examined in the PPJB and PJB a general trend of decreasing conditional mean temperature gradient with increasing turbulence intensity is observed. This indicates that a trend of so called flame front thickening with increased turbulence levels occurs for the flames examined. It is proposed that the mechanism for this flame front thickening is due to eddies penetrating and embedding in the instantaneous flame front. In the extinction region it is found that the OH concentration is significantly reduced compared to the initial ignition region. In the re-ignition region it is found that the OH level increases again indicating that an increase in the local reaction rate is occurring. In laminar premixed flames CH2O occurs in a thin layer in the reaction zone, it is found for all of the flames examined that the CH2O layer is significantly thicker than the laminar flame. For the high velocity flames beyond x/D=15, CH2O no longer exist in a distinct layer but rather in a near uniform field for the intermediate temperature regions. Examination of the product of CH2O and OH reveals that the heat release in the initial ignition region is high and rapidly decreases in the extinction region, an increase in the heat release further downstream is observed corresponding to the re-ignition region. This finding corresponds well with the initial hypothesis of an extinction region followed by a re-ignition region that was based on the mean chemiluminescence images. Detailed simultaneous measurement of major and minor species has been conducted using the line Raman-Rayleigh-LIF technique with CO LIF and crossed plane-OH PLIF at Sandia National Laboratories. By measuring all major species it is also possible to define a mixture fraction for all three streams of the PPJB. Using these three mixture fractions it was found that the influence of the pilot in the PPJB decays very rapidly for all but the lowest velocity flames. It was also found that for the high velocity flames exhibiting extinction, a significant proportion of the coflow fluid is entrained into the central jet combustion process at both the extinction region and re-ignition regions. The product of CO and OH conditional on temperature is shown to be proportion to the net production rate of CO2 for certain temperature ranges. By examining the product of CO and OH the hypothesis of an initial ignition region followed by an extinction region then a re-ignition region for certain PPJB flames has been further validated complementing the [CH2O][OH] imaging results. Numerical modelling results using the transported composition probability density function (TPDF) method coupled to a conventional Reynolds averaged Naiver Stokes (RANS) solver are shown in this thesis to successfully predict the occurrence of finite-rate chemistry effects for the PM1 PPJB flame series. To calculate the scalar variance and the degree of finite-rate chemistry effects correctly, it is found that a value of the mixing constant ( ) of approximately 8.0 is required. This value of is much larger than the standard excepted range of 1.5-2.3 for that has been established for non-premixed combustion. By examining the results of the RANS turbulence model in a non-reacting variable density jet, it is shown that the primary limitation of the predictive capability of the TPDF-RANS method is the RANS turbulence model when applied to variable density flows.

Lean premixed combustion is at present one of the most promising methods to reduce emissions and to maintain high efficiency in combustion systems. As the emission legislation becomes more stringent, modelling of turbulent premixed combustion has become an important tool for designing efficient and environmentally friendlier combustion systems. However, in order to predict these emissions reliable predictive models are required. One of the methods used for predicting pollutants is the conditional moment closure (CMC), which is suitable to predict pollutants with slow time scales. Despite the fact that CMC has been successfully applied to various non-premixed combustion systems, its application to premixed flames is not fully tested and validated. The main difficulty is associated with the modelling of the conditional scalar dissipation rate (CSDR) of the conditioning scalar, the progress variable. In premixed CMC, this term is an important quantity and represents the rate of mixing at small scales of relevance for combustion. The numerical accuracy of the CMC method depends on the accuracy of the CSDR model. In this study, two different models for CSDR, an algebraic model and an inverse problem model, are validated using two different DNS data sets. The algebraic model along with standard k-ε turbulence modelling is used in the computations of stoichiometric and very lean pilot stabilized Bunsen flames using the RANS-CMC method. A first order closure is used for the conditional mean reaction rate. The computed nonreacting and reacting scalars are in reasonable agreement with the experiments and are consistent with earlier computations using flamlets and transported PDF methods for the stoichiometric flames, and transported PDF methods for the very lean flames. Sensitivity to chemical kinetics mechanism is also assessed.

This work addresses the application of non-premixed filtered tabulated chemistry as a turbulent combustion modeling strategy in the LES framework. On the first part of this study the effects of the filtering operation on non-premixed flamelets are carefully appraised, considering an individual flamelet and the entire manifold. Subsequently, a systematic approach is followed where first the numerical implementation is verified. Afterwards validation is done on a coflow laminar diffusion flame, where promising results encourage the further model appraisal on a more complex turbulent configuration. This is finally achieved under turbulent conditions of Flames D and E, where the formalism including a SGS wrinkling modeling function adequately describes the wrinkled flame front features. The formalism assessment on a laminar coflow diffusion flame reveals a considerable sensitivity to the flame dimensionality. A flame sensor based on the mixture fraction gradient, with a tolerance to take into account the numerical grid resolution, is introduced and proves to deliver satisfactory results. The sensor-determined model activation allows to adequately represent the underlying physics behind flame filtering and so it endorses the consistency of the numerical procedure. The evaluation of the non-premixed FTACLES model on turbulent flames D and E demonstrates that the formalism coupling with a SGS wrinkling modeling function can adequately describe the wrinkled flame front condition. The model performs significantly well employing a three-dimensional tabulation strategy, where the numerical grid is coupled with the model by the third parameter, i.e. the computational cell size. The predictions for both the major stable species and the minor ones accurately correspond with the undergoing physics. The obtained results have a deep theoretical implication for the combustion research. First, they confirm the idea that SGS closure in diffusive combustion can be derived based on filtering arguments, and not only based on statistical approaches. Second, they demonstrate the enormous potential of the non-premixed FTACLES formalism once a sound flame sensor and a SGS wrinkling modeling function are included. / Doctorat en Sciences de l'ingénieur et technologie / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Hydrogen, as an alternative to conventional aviation fuels, has the potential to increase the efficiency of a gas turbine as well as reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. In addition to significantly reducing the number of pollutants due to the absence of carbon, burning hydrogen at low equivalence ratios can significantly reduce emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Because hydrogen has a wide range of flammability limits, fuel lean combustion can take place at lower equivalence ratios than those with typical hydrocarbon fuels. Numerous efforts have been made to develop gas turbine fuel injectors that premix methane/natural gas and air in fuel lean proportions prior to the reaction zone. Application of this technique to hydrogen combustion has been limited due to hydrogen's high flame rate and the concern of the reaction zone propagating into the premixing injector, commonly referred to as flashback. In this investigation, a lean-premixing hydrogen injector has been developed for application in small gas turbines. The performance of this injector was characterized and predictions about the injector's performance operating under combustor inlet conditions of a PT6-20 Turboprop have been made. / Master of Science

As a result of growing concerns about the carbon emissions associated with the combustion of conventional hydrocarbon fuels, hydrogen is gaining more attention as a clean alternative. The combustion of hydrogen in air produces no carbon emissions. However, hydrogen-air combustion does have the potential to produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are harmful pollutants. The production of NOx can be significantly curbed using lean premixed combustion, wherein hydrogen and air are mixed at an equivalence ratio (the ratio of stoichiometric to actual air in the combustion process) significantly less than 1.0 prior to combustion. Hydrogen is a good candidate for use in lean premixed systems due to its very wide flammability range. The potential for the stable combustion of hydrogen at a wide range of equivalence ratios makes it particularly well-suited to application in gas turbines, where the equivalence ratio is likely to vary significantly over the operating range of the machine. The strong lean combustion stability of hydrogen-air flames is due primarily to high reaction rates and the associated high turbulent burning velocities. While this is advantageous at low equivalence ratios, it presents a significant danger of flashback — the upstream propagation of the flame into the premixing device — at higher equivalence ratios. An investigation has been conducted into the operation of a specific hydrogen-air premixer design in a gas turbine engine. Laboratory tests were first conducted to determine the upper stability limits of a single premixer. Tests were then carried out in which eighteen premixers and a custom-fabricated combustor liner were installed in a modified Pratt and Whitney Canada PT6A-20 turboprop engine. The tests examined the premixer and engine operability as a result of the modifications. A computer cycle analysis model was created to help analyze and predict the behavior of the modified engine and premixers. The model, which uses scaled component maps to predict off-design engine performance, was integral in the analysis of premixer flashback which limited the operation of the modified engine. / Master of Science

Hydrogen-powered engines have been gaining increasing interest due to the global concerns of the effects of hydrocarbon combustion on climate change. Gas turbines are suitable for operation on hydrogen fuel. This thesis reports the results of investigations of the special requirements of the fuel controller for a hydrogen gas turbine. In this investigation, a digital fuel controller for a hydrogen-fueled modified Pratt and Whitney PT6A-20 turboprop engine was successfully designed and implemented. Included in the design are safety measures to protect the operating personnel and the engine. A redundant fuel control is part of the final design to provide a second method of managing the engine should there be a malfunction in any part of the primary controller. Parallel to this study, an investigation of the existing hydrogen combustor design was performed to analyze the upper stability limits that were restricting the operability of the engine. The upstream propagation of the flame into the premixer, more commonly known as a flashback, routinely occurred at 150 shaft horsepower during engine testing. The procedures for protecting the engine from a flashback were automated within the fuel controller, significantly reducing the response time from the previous (manual) method. Additionally, protection measures were added to ensure the inter-turbine temperature of the engine did not exceed published limits. Automatic engine starting and shutdown procedures were also added to the control logic, minimizing the effort needed by the operator. The tested performance of the engine with each of the control functions demonstrated the capability of the controller. Methods to generate an engine-specific fuel control map were also studied. The control map would not only takes into account the operability limits of the engine, but also the stability limits of the premixing devices. Such a map is integral in the complete design of the engine fuel controller. / Master of Science

Detonation cycles are identified as an efficient alternative to the Brayton cycles used in power and propulsion applications. Rotating Detonation Engine (RDE) operating on a detonation cycle works by compressing the working fluid across a detonation wave, thereby reducing the number of compressor stages required in the thermodynamic cycle. Numerical analyses of RDEs are flexible in understanding the flow field within the RDE, however, three-dimensional analyses are expensive due to the differences in time-scale required to resolve the combustion process and flow-field. The alternate two-dimensional analyses are generally modeled with perfectly premixed fuel injection and do not capture the effects of improper mixing arising due to discrete injection of fuel and oxidizer into the chamber. To model realistic injection in a 2-D analysis, the current work uses an approach in which, a Probability Density Function (PDF) of the fuel mass fraction at the chamber inlet is extracted from a 3-D, cold-flow simulation and is used as an inlet boundary condition for fuel mass fraction in the 2-D analysis. The 2-D simulation requires only 0.4% of the CPU hours for one revolution of the detonation compared to an equivalent 3-D simulation. Using this method, a perfectly premixed RDE is comparing with a non-premixed case. The performance is found to vary between the two cases. The mean detonation velocities, time-averaged static pressure profiles are found to be similar between the two cases, while the local detonation velocities and peak pressure values vary in the non-premixed case due to local pockets fuel rich/lean mixtures. The mean detonation cell sizes are similar, but the distribution in the non-premixed case is closer due to stronger shock structures. An analytical method is used to check the effects of fuel-product stratification and heat loss from the RDE and these effects adversely affect the local detonation velocity. Overall, this method of modeling captures the complex physics in an RDE with the advantage of reduced computational cost and therefore can be used for design and diagnostic purposes. / Master of Science / The conventional Brayton cycle used in power and propulsion applications is highly optimized, at cycle and component levels. In pursuit of higher thermodynamic efficiency, detonation cycles are identified as an efficient alternative and gained increased attention in the scientific community. In a Rotating Detonation Engine (RDE), which is based on the detonation cycle, the compression of gases occurs across a shock wave. This method of achieving high compression ratios reduces the number of compressor stages required for operation. In an RDE (where combustion occurs between two coaxial cylinders), the fuel and oxidizer are injected axially into the combustion chamber where the detonation is initiated. The resultant detonation wave spins continuously in the azimuthal direction, consuming fresh fuel mixture. The combustion products expand and exhaust axially providing thrust/mechanical energy when coupled with a turbine. Numerical analyses of RDEs are flexible over experimental analysis, in terms of understanding the flow physics and the physical/chemical processes occurring within the engine. However, three-dimensional numerical analyses are computationally expansive, and therefore demanding an equivalent, efficient two-dimensional analysis. In most RDEs, fuel and oxidizer are injected from separate plenums into the chamber. This type of injection leads to inhomogeneity of the fuel-air mixture within the RDE which adversely affects the performance of the engine. The current study uses a novel method to effectively capture these physics in a 2-D numerical analysis. Furthermore, the performance of the combustor is compared between perfectly premixed injection and discrete, non-premixed injection. The method used in this work can be used for any injector design and is a powerful/efficient way to numerically analyze a Rotating Detonation Engine.