In order to find out why energy-not-supplied in Norway - the most important indicator for the quality of service in the quality-regulation regime there - decreased more pronounced before the introduction of quality-regulation in 2001 than after it, we develop a dynamic quality-DEA-model and apply it to a representative sample of distribution-net operators. Our model enables us to calculate a counter-factual and thus to tentatively answer the question: What would have happened, had there been no quality-regulation? This way we find strong evidence that the quality-regulation in Norway did not have an effect on the behavior of the firms. (author's abstract) / Series: Working Papers / Research Institute for Regulatory Economics

We investigate empirically the usefulness of price-cap and quality regulation in terms of allocative efficiency and welfare. An analytical framework allows us to determine sufficient conditions for an increase in welfare. We propose Malmquist productivity indices and their decomposition to check the conditions and to see whether it was a better-solved trade off between quality and costs that caused the welfare increase. The application of this method to a representative sample of Norwegian distribution system operators yields strong evidence for a positive effect of quality regulation on welfare. (author's abstract) / Series: Working Papers / Research Institute for Regulatory Economics

Society relies more and more on a continuous supply of electricity. However, while underinvestments in reliability lead to an unacceptable number of power interruptions, overinvestments result in too high costs for society. To give incentives for a socioeconomically optimal level of reliability, quality regulations have been adopted in many European countries. These quality regulations imply new financial risks for the distribution system operator (DSO) since poor reliability can reduce the allowed revenue for the DSO and compensation may have to be paid to affected customers.This thesis develops a method for evaluating the incentives for reliability investments implied by different quality regulation designs. The method can be used to investigate whether socioeconomically beneficial projects are also beneficial for a profit-maximizing DSO subject to a particular quality regulation design. To investigate which reinvestment projects are preferable for society and a DSO, risk-based methods are developed. With these methods, the probability of power interruptions and the consequences of these can be simulated. The consequences of interruptions for the DSO will to a large extent depend on the quality regulation. The consequences for the customers, and hence also society, will depend on factors such as the interruption duration and time of occurrence. The proposed risk-based methods consider extreme outage events in the risk assessments by incorporating the impact of severe weather, estimating the full probability distribution of the total reliability cost, and formulating a risk-averse strategy. Results from case studies performed show that quality regulation design has a significant impact on reinvestment project profitability for a DSO. In order to adequately capture the financial risk that the DSO is exposed to, detailed risk-based methods, such as the ones developed in this thesis, are needed. Furthermore, when making investment decisions, a risk-averse strategy may clarify the benefits or drawbacks of a project that are hard to discover by looking only at the expected net present value. / QC 20110530

[pt] No Setor Elétrico Brasileiro (SEB), a revisão das tarifas de distribuição é realizada com base na regulação por preço-teto. Este esquema de regulação tarifária cria incentivos à redução de custos que podem ser nocivos à qualidade do fornecimento. Neste contexto, torna-se necessário um aparato regulatório complementar que fixe padrões mínimos de qualidade a serem observados pelas concessionárias, sob risco de sanções e penalidades. Entre os aspectos da qualidade do fornecimento destaca-se o da continuidade, avaliado com base nos indicadores DEC e FEC que expressam, respectivamente, a duração e a freqüência das interrupções do fornecimento de energia elétrica. Esta Tese propõe uma nova implementação da regulação por comparação de desempenho na definição dos níveis toleráveis de DEC e FEC, ou metas de continuidade, para as concessionárias de distribuição e seus conjuntos de unidades consumidoras. Na abordagem proposta combinam-se modelos de Análise Envoltória de Dados (DEA) em um processo com dois estágios: primeiro um modelo DEA estabelece quanto cada distribuidora deve melhorar globalmente os seus indicadores de continuidade, em seguida, por meio de um modelo para alocação de recursos baseado em DEA, comparam-se os desempenhos dos conjuntos em uma mesma distribuidora e definem-se metas locais de continuidade para cada conjunto, compatíveis com a meta global da concessionária. Apresentam-se metas globais de continuidade para as distribuidoras do SEB e metas locais para os conjuntos de unidades consumidoras das duas principais concessionárias que atendem o Estado do Rio de Janeiro. / [en] In the Brazilian electric power sector, the distribution tariff revision is made by the price cap method. Since this approach encourages the cost reduction, the quality of supply can suffer deterioration. In this context, a quality supply regulation becomes more important. The continuity of supply regulation consists in setting upper limits or standards to the number and the duration of outages and penalities for any violation of these standards. The main dimension of the electricity quality is the supply continuity, evaluated by indices SAIDI (System Average Interruption Duration Index) and SAIFI (System Average Interruption Frequency Index). This Thesis presents a new implementation of the yardstick competition in the setting of the continuity standards for the electricity distribution utilities and their groups of consumption units. The approach proposed combines two Data Envelopment Analysis models (DEA) in a framework with two stages. First, a classical DEA model performs a comparative analysis between utilities, in order to define global standards for each utility. Then, in order to set the local standards for each consumption units group, a model for resource allocation, based on DEA, performs a comparative analysis between groups in a same utility. Global standards for Brazilian distribution utilities and local standards for consumption units groups of the two main distribution utilities in the Rio de Janeiro State are presented.

Motor vehicles are a major source of gaseous and particulate matter pollution in urban areas, particularly of ultrafine sized particles (diameters < 0.1 µm). Exposure to particulate matter has been found to be associated with serious health effects, including respiratory and cardiovascular disease, and mortality. Particle emissions generated by motor vehicles span a very broad size range (from around 0.003-10 µm) and are measured as different subsets of particle mass concentrations or particle number count. However, there exist scientific challenges in analysing and interpreting the large data sets on motor vehicle emission factors, and no understanding is available of the application of different particle metrics as a basis for air quality regulation. To date a comprehensive inventory covering the broad size range of particles emitted by motor vehicles, and which includes particle number, does not exist anywhere in the world. This thesis covers research related to four important and interrelated aspects pertaining to particulate matter generated by motor vehicle fleets. These include the derivation of suitable particle emission factors for use in transport modelling and health impact assessments; quantification of motor vehicle particle emission inventories; investigation of the particle characteristic modality within particle size distributions as a potential for developing air quality regulation; and review and synthesis of current knowledge on ultrafine particles as it relates to motor vehicles; and the application of these aspects to the quantification, control and management of motor vehicle particle emissions. In order to quantify emissions in terms of a comprehensive inventory, which covers the full size range of particles emitted by motor vehicle fleets, it was necessary to derive a suitable set of particle emission factors for different vehicle and road type combinations for particle number, particle volume, PM1, PM2.5 and PM1 (mass concentration of particles with aerodynamic diameters < 1 µm, < 2.5 µm and < 10 µm respectively). The very large data set of emission factors analysed in this study were sourced from measurement studies conducted in developed countries, and hence the derived set of emission factors are suitable for preparing inventories in other urban regions of the developed world. These emission factors are particularly useful for regions with a lack of measurement data to derive emission factors, or where experimental data are available but are of insufficient scope. The comprehensive particle emissions inventory presented in this thesis is the first published inventory of tailpipe particle emissions prepared for a motor vehicle fleet, and included the quantification of particle emissions covering the full size range of particles emitted by vehicles, based on measurement data. The inventory quantified particle emissions measured in terms of particle number and different particle mass size fractions. It was developed for the urban South-East Queensland fleet in Australia, and included testing the particle emission implications of future scenarios for different passenger and freight travel demand. The thesis also presents evidence of the usefulness of examining modality within particle size distributions as a basis for developing air quality regulations; and finds evidence to support the relevance of introducing a new PM1 mass ambient air quality standard for the majority of environments worldwide. The study found that a combination of PM1 and PM10 standards are likely to be a more discerning and suitable set of ambient air quality standards for controlling particles emitted from combustion and mechanically-generated sources, such as motor vehicles, than the current mass standards of PM2.5 and PM10. The study also reviewed and synthesized existing knowledge on ultrafine particles, with a specific focus on those originating from motor vehicles. It found that motor vehicles are significant contributors to both air pollution and ultrafine particles in urban areas, and that a standardized measurement procedure is not currently available for ultrafine particles. The review found discrepancies exist between outcomes of instrumentation used to measure ultrafine particles; that few data is available on ultrafine particle chemistry and composition, long term monitoring; characterization of their spatial and temporal distribution in urban areas; and that no inventories for particle number are available for motor vehicle fleets. This knowledge is critical for epidemiological studies and exposure-response assessment. Conclusions from this review included the recommendation that ultrafine particles in populated urban areas be considered a likely target for future air quality regulation based on particle number, due to their potential impacts on the environment. The research in this PhD thesis successfully integrated the elements needed to quantify and manage motor vehicle fleet emissions, and its novelty relates to the combining of expertise from two distinctly separate disciplines - from aerosol science and transport modelling. The new knowledge and concepts developed in this PhD research provide never before available data and methods which can be used to develop comprehensive, size-resolved inventories of motor vehicle particle emissions, and air quality regulations to control particle emissions to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations.

La sfida nel 21esimo secolo è quella di fornire cibo e energia ad un mondo in continua crescita demografica e allo stesso tempo conservare l’ambiente. In questa tesi uno scenario alternativo di uso del suolo per la produzione di bioenergia è stato testato: le fasce tampone bioenergetiche. Considerate le problematiche ambientali legate al trilemma “cibo-energia-ambiente”, la struttura del Millennium Ecosystem Assessment sui servizi ecosistemici (SE) fornisce l’opportunità di esaminare l’impatto ambientale di questo nuovo scenario bioenergetico. In questa tesi ho mirato a determinare in che misura le colture bioenergetiche poliennali influenzino la fornitura multipla di SE quando coltivate come fasce tampone. Per raggiungere questo obiettivo, ho combinato una revisione sistematica della letteratura sui SE forniti da colture energetiche poliennali (CEP) con una prova sperimentale su fasce tampone bioenergetiche. Applicando una metodologia di attribuzione di punteggi agli impatti sui SE estratti dal materiale bibliografico raccolto, ho mostrato come coltivando le CEP lungo i margini dei campi coltivati esista una grande opportunità per sostenere la fornitura multipla di SE. La coltivazione delle CEP come fasce tampone adiacenti a campi agricoli può migliorare i SE di regolazione del clima, dell’acqua e della biodiversità, sostenere la salute del suolo e fornire biomassa dedicata alla produzione di bioenergia. Al contrario, la conversione di margini di campo di prati stabili ha mostrato un impatto netto negativo sulla fornitura multipla di SE. Tuttavia, due sono i principali svantaggi che sono stati individuati relativamente alla creazione e alla gestione delle fasce tampone bioenergetiche. Primo, diversi sono i fattori sito-specifici di tipo idro-pedologico lungo i margini dei campi che devono essere tenuti in considerazione poiché possono avere un impatto negativo sull’affrancamento delle colture e la loro produttività a medio-lungo termine. Secondo, riguardo la catena di approvvigionamento della biomassa, uno spazio di lavoro limitato per le macchine agricole è stato riconosciuto come principale inconveniente per le fasce tampone bioenergetiche rispetto alle CEP coltivate in pieno campo. Questo limite logistico di natura spaziale può inevitabilmente incrementare i tempi e le operazioni di taglio e raccolta della biomassa e quindi in ultima il consumo di combustili fossili. Grazie ad una prova sperimentale su fasce tampone bioenergetiche condotta in un terreno sabbioso-limoso con falda acquifera poco profonda contaminata da nitrati di origine agricola, si è dimostrato come fasce tampone coltivate con miscanto e salice siano in grado di intercettare e rimuovere i nitrati in falda (>60%) tanto quanto fasce tampone con specie avventizie. CEP come miscanto e salice, grazie ai loro apparati radicali profondi, hanno mostrato essere in grado di promuovere delle relazioni pianta-suolo-microorganismi lungo l’intero profilo del suolo utili ai fini ambientali delle fasce tampone bioenergetiche. Infatti, negli strati più profondi, una maggiore biomassa radicale ha portato le CEP a superare le specie avventizie in termini di rimozione biologica dei nitrati dal suolo e mitigazione potenziale dei gas serra. Inoltre, i risultati relativi alla produzione di biomassa e le asportazioni di N legata alla fase di raccolta hanno confermato ulteriormente come la coltivazione di CEP lungo i corsi d’acqua sia una strategia win-win: produzione di biomassa e protezione dell’ambiente. In conclusione, il potenziale rivelato dalle CEP in termini di fornitura multipla di SE suggerisce che la loro coltivazione, come elementi paesaggistici perenni in posizioni strategiche all'interno di paesaggio agricolo, è un'opzione promettente per promuovere l'intensificazione ecologicamente sostenibile degli agroecosistemi. / The 21st century will challenge agriculture to feed and fuel a growing world while conserving the environment. In this thesis an alternative bioenergy land use scenario to the conversion of marginal land has been tested: the bioenergy buffers. Given the environmental issues related to “food-energy-environment” trilemma, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework on ES provides an opportunity to examine the environmental impacts of this new bioenergy land use scenario. In this thesis I aimed to determine to what extent do the perennial bioenergy crops affect the delivery of multiple ES when cultivated as bioenergy buffers. To reach this aim, I combined a systematic revision of literature on ES provided by perennial bioenergy crops with a field experiment on bioenergy buffers. Applying an impact scoring methodology to the effects on ES extracted from literature, I showed that, cultivating perennial bioenergy crops along field margins of former croplands offer a great opportunity to sustain the provision of multiple ES. The cultivation of perennial bioenergy crops on field margins can improve climate, biodiversity and water regulation services, sustain soil health and provide biomass for energetic purposes. On the contrary, grassland conversion showed a net negative impact on multiple ES provision. Nevertheless, I found two main shortcomings related to bioenergy buffers establishment and management. First, several site-specific factors along field margins must be taken into account, because they can affect crop establishment and buffers long-term productivity. Second, regarding to biomass supply chain, a limited working space for the farm machinery operations has been recognized as the main disadvantages of bioenergy buffers compared to large-scale bioenergy plantations. This spatial logistics constraint may inevitably increase harvest and collection operation times and fossil fuel consumption. Conducting a field experiment with bioenergy buffers in a nitrate-enriched shallow groundwater, I showed that miscanthus and willow buffers are able to efficiently intercept and remove from groundwater the incoming NO3-N as much as buffer strips with spontaneous species. Yet, due to their deep rooting systems, bioenergy buffers promote significant plant-microbial linkages along the soil profile. At deeper soil layers, a higher fine root biomass led perennial bioenergy crops to outperform patches of adventitious vegetation in terms of biological N removal from soil and belowground GHG mitigation potential. The results on biomass production and N removal via harvesting further confirmed that the cultivation of perennial bioenergy crops along watercourses is an effective win-win strategy: biomass production and protection of the environment. In conclusion, the revealed potential of perennial bioenergy crops on multiple ES provision implies that their cultivation as perennial landscape elements in strategic locations within landscape is a promising option to promote the ecological sustainable intensification of agroecosystems.