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In the quest to reduce the release of carbon dioxide to limit the effects of global climate change, tidal-in-stream energy is being investigated as one of many possible sustainable means of generating electricity. In this scheme, turbines are placed in a tidal flow and kinetic energy is extracted. With the goal of producing maximum power, there is an ideal amount of resistance these turbines should provide; too little resistance will not a develop a sufficient pressure differential, while too much resistance will choke the flow. Tidal flow in a strait is driven by the difference in sea-level along the channel and is impeded by friction; the interplay between the driving and resistive forces determines the flow rate and thus the extractible power. The use of kinetic energy flux, previously employed as a metric for extractible power, is found to be unreliable as it does not account for the increased resistance the turbines provide in retarding the flow. The limits on extraction from a channel are dependant on the relationship between head loss and velocity. If head loss increases with the square of the velocity, a maximum of 38% of the total fluid power may be extracted; this maximum decreases to 25\% if head loss increases linearly with velocity. Using these values, the estimated power potential of BC's Inside Passage is 477MW, 13% of previous assessments. If a flow has the ability to divert through a parallel channel around the installed turbines, there are further limits on production. The magnitude of this diversion is a function of the relative resistance of impeded and diversion channels. As power extraction increases, the flow will slow from its natural rate. This reduction in velocity precipitously decreases the power density the flow, requiring additional turbine area per unit of power. As such, the infrastructure costs per watt may rise five to eight times as additional turbines are installed. This places significant economic limitations on utility-scale tidal energy production.

In the last fifty years, Nunavut has developed a deep dependence on diesel for virtually all of its energy needs, including electricity. This dependence has created a number of economic, environmental and health related challenges in the territory, with an estimated 20% of the territory’s annual budget being spent on energy, thereby limiting the Government of Nunavut’s ability to address other essential infrastructure and societal needs, such as education, nutrition and health care and housing. One solution to address this diesel dependency is the use of renewable energy technologies (RETs), such as wind, solar and hydropower. As such, this thesis explores energy alternatives in Nunavut, and through RETScreen renewable energy simulations, found that solar power and wind power are technically viable options for Nunavut communities and a potentially successful means to offset diesel-generated electricity in Nunavut. However, through this analysis it was also discovered that accurate data or renewable resources are often unavailable for most Nunavut communities. Moreover, through qualitative open-ended interviews, the perspectives of Nunavut residents with regards to developing RETs in Nunavut were explored, and it was found that respondents generally supported the use of renewable energy in their communities, while acknowledging that there still remains a knowledge gap among residents regarding renewable energy, stemming from a lack of communication between the communities, government and the utility company. In addition, the perceived challenges, opportunities and gaps that exist with regards to renewable energy policy and program development were discussed with government policy-makers through further interviews, and it was discovered that often government departments work largely independently of each other rather than collaboratively, creating gaps and oversights in renewable energy policy in Nunavut. Combined, the results of this thesis were used to develop a number of recommended policy actions that could be undertaken by the territorial and federal government to support a shift towards renewable energy in order to develop a sustainable and self-sufficient energy plan in Nunavut. They include: gathering accurate renewable resource data in Nunavut; increasing community consultations on the subject of renewable energy; building strong partnerships with universities, colleges and industry; developing a knowledge sharing network; and finally increasing accessibility to renewable energy programs and policies in Nunavut. / Thesis (Master, Environmental Studies) -- Queen's University, 2011-09-29 23:47:11.775

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Electric and hybrid electric vehicles’ batteries not only have great potential for alleviating the world’s gasoline consumption problem, but may also stand poised to secure the world’s renewable energy generation. Electric and hybrid electric vehicles’ batteries that have reached the end of their cycle life in vehicles may still have the capacity to be repurposed into stationary utility energy storage. However, the phenomenon known as battery aging must be given careful consideration in the construction of a repurposed battery energy storage system. The battery aging phenomenon reduces the battery’s nominal voltage, capacity and current rating, while increasing its internal resistance. These factors were taken into consideration for the development of the Repurposed Battery Energy Storage System (RBESS). The system utilizes a method called Multi-Level Interlaced Pulse Charging (MLIPC) which was developed for the RBESS to manage the battery’s voltage, current, and energy to extend the useful cycle life of the batteries. The repurposed battery energy storage system has been modeled in PSCAD/EMTDC and tested in a constructed hardware implementation of the system.

The UK has a commitment to reduce greenhouse gases by at least 80% from 1990 levels by 2050. This will see the proportion of energy generated in the UK from renewable resources such as wind, solar, marine and bio-fuels is increasing and likely to dominate the future energy market over the next few decades. However, it is unclear what effect future physical climate changes could have on the long term average energy output characteristics of individual renewable energy technologies that may dominate the low carbon energy technologies. It is also unclear how these changes to individual technologies will affect a diverse portfolio of electricity generation technologies. This thesis explores the influence of climate change on renewable electricity generation portfolios and energy security in the UK, with the aim of determining if climate change will affect renewable energy resource in such a way that may leave future low carbon generation portfolios sub-optimal. The research allows long term renewable resource variability to be reflected within models of the costs and risks associated with different electricity generation technologies and using Mean Variance Portfolio Theory (MVPT), it explores the influence of climate change on renewable energy portfolios and energy security in the UK. The scope of this study has a considerable range spanning from renewable resources through to the sensitivity of an optimal portfolio mix of generation technologies to climate change. In brief, the objectives were as follows: Characterise the variability of renewable energy resources and electricity generation output from renewable technology in the UK, in particular solar PV, on and offshore wind, for future climate scenarios for the 2050s and 2080s. Characterise the variability of electricity generation costs and explore the effect of climate change scenarios on generation costs and risk by examining the cost-risk balance of current and potential future low carbon electricity generation technology portfolios. The outcome saw distinctive changes in solar, wind, wave and hydro resource. The changes were largely negative, except in the case of solar, which increased. Levelised costs decreased for solar PV but increased for the technologies with negative resource changes. Evident changes in optimal portfolio mixes were observed and explored.

It is likely that in the near future, energy engineering will be required to help society adapt to permanently constrained fuel supplies, constrained green house gas emissions, and electricity supply systems running with minimal capacity margins. The goal of this research is to develop an analytical approach for adaptive energy systems engineering within the context of resource and environmental constraints. This involves assessing available energy resources, environmental and social issues, and economic activities. The approach is applied to a relatively simple case study on Rotuma, an isolated Pacific Island society. The case study is based on new data from field work. A spectrum of development options is identified for Rotuma and a reference energy demand is calculated for each representative level. A spectrum of conceptual reference energy system models is generated for each energy service level with a range of renewable energy penetration. The outcome is a matrix of energy system investment and resource utilization for the range of energy service levels. These models are then used for comparative risk assessment. The result is an easily understood visual based investment and risk assessment for both development and adaptation to constrained resource availability. The results show a clear development opportunity space for Rotuma where needs and services are in balance with investment, local resource availability and environmental constraints.

The increasing global energy demand, which today is mainly supplied by energy sources with a fossil origin, is a severe threat to the environment and to the security of supply. In order to handle these problems, renewable energy sources are promoted globally as well as nationally in Sweden. Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology is one of the most mature and commercial renewable energy technologies and could play a vital role in phasing out fossil energy sources. In the emerging, promising concept of solar landfills, PV systems are installed on closed landfill sites in order to combine renewable electricity production with resource efficient use of land. In this study the legal, technical and financial aspects concerning a solar landfill project in a Swedish setting were investigated. Additionally, the potential of the concept on a regional level in Sweden was analysed. The methodology used in the study featured literature research, interviews, and a feasibility assessment of a solar landfill project on Visby landfill. Regarding the legal aspects linked to a solar landfill project, an inconsistency between Swedish municipalities concerning the need of a building permit for a ground mounted PV system was revealed in the study. While some municipalities demand a building permit, others do not. Additionally, the fact that a closed landfill usually is classified as an environmentally hazardous activity doesn’t result in any need for additional permissions for a PV system installation on a closed landfill. Therefore, such legal aspects are not likely to hinder a solar landfill project to any great extent. Considering the technical aspects, the choice of mounting system must be done carefully because of the special conditions which exist on a landfill site; such as ground penetration restrictions and risks of settlement. While a ballasted mounting system can avoid ground penetration, a driven pile mounting system generally features a lighter construction. Furthermore, a fixed tilt mounting system is preferred over a sun tracking mounting system due to the extra weight and sensitivity to settlement which comes with the latter choice. Regarding the choice of PV modules, thin film modules generally feature a lower weight and can therefore be advantageous in comparison with crystalline silicon modules. In the case of Visby landfill, where penetration was preferred to be avoided but where the risk of settlement was considered low, the PV system which was deemed most suitable for the site featured a ballasted fixed tilt mounting system with crystalline silicon PV modules. Considering the financial aspects, the study emphasises the importance of using the produced electricity to offset consumed electricity in order to enable a sound investment. This can be done by a wise choice of owning and financing structure where the produced electricity offsets consumed electricity for a large consumer, e.g. an industry or a grocery store, or for a number of residences in a community solar. The economic feasibility also heavily depends on the projects’ possibility to use policy incentives and tax exemptions. The feasibility assessment of Visby landfill showed that the most economically feasible investment was possible by founding a community solar which offsets the members’ consumed electricity. Such an investment would feature a 10 year payback time and an internal rate of return of 8.3 %. Finally, the potential of the solar landfill concept on a regional level was identified as significant. In a scenario where the PV system suggested for Visby landfill in the feasibility assessment is installed on all the suitable landfill sites on Gotland, the island has the possibility to produce 22 GWh of electricity from solar landfills, thereby meeting the regional energy goal set for 2020.

A growing concern among investors for social responsibility in relation to the business world and its effect on the environment, society, and government has increased and therefore different types of stock indices and funds that incorporate socially responsible ideals have been developed. However, a literature review revealed that there does not seem to be much information about the volatility of Green Funds or Socially Responsible Investments (SRI). Volatility is an important part of understanding the financial markets and is used by many to understand asset allocation, risk management, option pricing and many other functions. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis is to investigate the volatility performance of SRIs, REFs and Conventional Indices by using different models CAPM, SR, JA and EGARCH, and monthly and daily data from the US, UK, Japan and Eurozone financial markets to compare results.   This thesis has been conducted by following an objective ontological and positivist epistemological position, because the data used for analysis in this thesis is independent from the author and has studied what actually exists, not what the author seeks to interpret. The research approach is functionalist, because this thesis sought to explain how the investments function in relation to volatility comparisons in different financial markets and if this volatility can be predicted through a framework of rules designed by previous researchers. The design is a deductive study of quantitative, longitudinal, secondary data, because hypotheses are derived from theory to test the volatility of time series data between the year 2007 and 2012 through empirical evidence.   Statistical evidence was found to suggest that the EGARCH model for volatility measurement is the best fit to model volatility and daily data can give more information and better consistency between results. SRIs were found to be less volatile than CIs in all financial markets; REFs were found more volatile than CIs in the US and Eurozone markets but not in the UK and Japan markets; REFs were found to be more volatile than SRIs in all markets except the UK; REFs were also found to be more volatile than SRIs and CIs during a recession in all markets except the UK. Evidence also indicated that the correlations between REFs and SRIs in the US and Eurozone were significant, but not significant in the UK and Japan market samples. The correlations were low between the UK and Japan SRIs, Japan and Eurozone SRIs and Japan SRI and Eurozone REF, which suggest that an investor may consider to diversify between these investments. However, all other statistically significant correlations between financial markets were high and could consequentially deliver poor long term investment performance.

With electricity tariffs in South Africa escalating at a rapid pace the demand for alternative power sources has increased. One of these renewable energy sources includes the use of biogas. Biogas is not only one of the most efficient and effective renewable energy possibilities available but also requires less capital investment as compared to other renewable sources like hydro, solar and wind and are also more economical as it involves less per unit production cost. Biogas plants have been used around the globe for numerous years, but are a relative new technology in South Africa, predominantly in the red meat industry with the use of slaughter waste as a form of biomass. Slaughter waste offers a vital possible source of renewable energy. A variation of factors makes the production of renewable energy from slaughter waste particularly appealing. The continuous rise of energy prices, waste disposal prices, and incentives for renewable energy production have increased the value of outputs from slaughter waste-to-energy systems. The primary objective of the research is assessing the economic viability of biogas plants at abattoirs in South Africa and if such a biogas plant would be beneficial to an abattoir. The research aimed to determine the viability through various capital budgeting techniques and define what the most significant calculated variables are that should be addressed in such an economic viability model. For the purposes of this study a Class A abattoir with a slaughtering capacity of 400 cattle per day was used as a case study. Biogas will be generated through anaerobic digestion and the utilising of the gas for the generation of electricity and heat by means of a CHP generator. The economic viability study contains of a base case scenario and two other possible scenarios and provides recommendations and a concluding report, based on the scenario that is the most viable. The succeeding techniques which were recognised were used to analyse the economic viability of the biogas plant: Payback Period, Discounted payback period, Net present value, profitability index, and internal rate of return. Furthermore a sensitivity analysis was done in the study with a pessimistic and optimistic outcome on key variables. The study establish that in the base case scenario a positive net present value was realised, the internal rate of return was more than the required rate of return and the payback periods was shorter than required. In this study the concept of biogas plants in the red meat industry were researched with the purpose of determining the economic viability of these plants. In determining the viability of the biogas plant the key variables that will impact the viability was also identified and discussed. Based on the data gathered and assumptions that was made it was concluded that a biogas plant will be beneficial to an abattoir and was considered economically viable. / MBA, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014