The objective of this thesis is to include strategic and tactical level decisions into the biorefinery supply chain design for a specific region while comparing multiple conversion technologies and biomass feedstocks. The allocation of biomass feedstocks, products, and the respective supply chain configuration locations are determined while ensuring the regions monthly biomass availability and product market demand constraints are met. This research considers all actions required to bring the bio-based products to market from harvesting, storing, and processing the biomass to market distribution. Two different conversion technologies are chosen for comparison: one advanced conversion technology and one conventional technology. Potential investors and policy makers will be able to use this region specific tool by maximizing annual profitability to evaluate potential lignocellulosic biomass feedstocks and conversion technologies for the production of energy, fuels, and chemicals. The tool utilizes ILOG OPL software for optimization while interfacing with Microsoft Excel for parameter inputs and results output. From the sensitivity analysis, further insight is gained to what key drivers greatly influence the performance of each supply chain. The results demonstrate the practicality of this tool, which then can be further analyzed through other models such as discrete event simulation.

Electricity generation from wind power and other renewable energy sources is increasing, and their variability introduces new challenges to the existing power system, which cannot cope effectively with highly variable and distributed energy resources. The emergence of smart grid technologies in recent year has seen a paradigm shift in redefining the electrical system of the future, in which controlled response of the demand side is used to balance fluctuations and intermittencies from the generation side. This thesis investigates the impact of smart grid technologies on the integration of wind power into the power system. A smart grid power system model is developed and validated by comparison with a real-life smart grid experiment: the Olympic Peninsula Demonstration Experiment. The smart grid system model is then expanded to include 1000 houses and a generic generation mix of nuclear, hydro, coal, gas and oil based generators. The effect of super-imposing varying levels of wind penetration are then investigated in conjunction with a market model whereby suppliers and demanders bid into a Real-Time Pricing (RTP) electricity market. The results demonstrate and quantify the effectiveness of DR in mitigating the variability of renewable generation. It is also found that the degree to which Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions can be mitigated is highly dependent on the generation mix. A displacement of natural gas based generation during peak demand can for instance lead to an increase in GHG emissions. Of practical significance to power system operators, the simulations also demonstrate that Demand Response (DR) can reduce generator cycling and improve generator efficiency, thus potentially lowering GHG emissions while also reducing wear and tear on generating equipment. / Graduate

Världens energibehov förväntas ökar samtidigt som miljökraven blir allt hårdare. För att komma till rätta med klimatförändringarna och utsläppen av växthusgaser måste användningen av fossila bränslen minska samtidigt som energieffektiviseringar och förnybara energikällor måste öka. En större andel intermittenta förnybara energikällor på elmarknaden medför utmaningar. Finns det inget elbehov då det exempelvis blåser eller när solen skiner går den producerade elen förlorad, detta leder till att produktion och konsumtion av elektricitet måste ske samtidigt. För att förnybar energi ska kunna expandera men också effektiviseras måste samhället utveckla smarta elnät. Det finns olika uppfattningar vad som krävs för att skapa smarta elnät men elektrisk energilagersystem återkommer ofta i litteraturen. Det finns forskare som anser att satsning på intermittenta förnybara energikällor inte är ett alternativ om inte energin går att lagra. Compressed air energy storage är ett energilager som använder komprimerad luft för att lagra energin tills det finns ett behov. Industrin i Sverige står för drygt en tredjedel av den totala energianvändningen. Över 90 % av tillverkningsindustrin använder tryckluft. Det finns stora och små förbrukare av tryckluft beroende på användningsområde.  I denna studie kommer en internationell nulägesbeskrivning ges i utvecklingen av smarta elnät med fokus på elektriska energilagersystem. Syftet är att studien ska vara ett diskussionsunderlag, en informationsbärare och idéskapare. Den internationella nulägesbeskrivningen baseras på studiebesök, litteratursammanställning samt intervjuer. Resultatet från den internationella nulägesbeskrivningen visar att intresset för elektriska energilagersystem ökar då det är en central del i utvecklingen av smarta elnät.  Mellan 2011-2013 ökade investeringarna i elektriska energilager med 521 %. En anledning till denna ökning är den internationella trenden med microgrids och mindre decentraliserade kraftverk. Med ökad efterfrågan på energilagringssystem kommer nya energilagringssystem skapas och befintliga system utvecklas. Syftet med studien är även att undersöka om energilager är en lösning till hållbar tryckluftsförsörjning inom industrin. Målet är att dimensionera ett luftningssystem bestående av vindkraftverk och energilager, med en viss volym och maxtryck, för en stor- och liten tryckluftsförbrukare. I studien kommer även kostnadsbesparingen för den stora förbrukaren optimeras genom arbitrage. Dimensioneringen görs utifrån simuleringar i Simulink och optimering görs i MATLAB. Dimensionerat luftningssystemet för den stora tryckluftsförbrukaren består av ett vindkraftverk, ett energilager på 200 m3 med maxtryck på 10 bar. Täckningsgraden, det vill säga andelen av luftbehovet som kan täckas med vindkraft tillsammans med ett energilager, är 26 % för det dimensionerade luftningssystemet. Resultatet ger då 48 % mindre energiförbrukning, cirka 1,2 miljoner kronor i kostnadsbesparing och en miljövinning motsvarande 532 ton CO2-ekvivalenter. Kostnadsbesparing, då el köps via arbitrage, för den stora förbrukaren optimeras till maximalt 1,2 miljoner kronor. Generatorn har då en verkningsgrad på 85 % och kompressorn 90 %. Dimensionerat luftningssystemet för den mindre tryckluftsförbrukaren består av en vindsnurra, ett energilager på 20 m3 med maxtryck på 30 bar. Täckningsgraden, det vill säga andelen av luftbehovet som kan täckas med vindsnurra tillsammans med ett energilager, är 61 % för det dimensionerade luftningssystemet. Resultatet ger då 93 % mindre energiförbrukning, cirka 26 tusen kronor i kostnadsbesparing och en miljövinningen motsvarande 10,7 ton CO2-ekvivalenter. Skillnaden mellan en vindsnurra och ett vindkraftverk är att vindsnurran inte producerar el utan använder rörelseenergin direkt. Ett system bestående av energilager som drivs av energi från vinden lämpar sig bättre för ett mindre tryckluftsbehov där det går att nå upp i högre täckningsgrad. Övergången till smarta elnät är nödvändigt för att tillgodose alla aspekter av hållbar utveckling. Det är ingen del av smarta elnät som är viktigare än någon annan. En hållbar tryckluftanvändning inom industrin är en del av smarta elnät och för att göra det möjligt har energilager en avgörande roll. Nulägesbeskrivningen visar att det i dagsläget finns ett ökat intresse för EES internationellt men att det inte finns ett EES som ensamt kommer lösa integrationen av förnybar energi. Tekniken för energilagring finns idag och växer imorgon. / The world’s energy demand is expected to increase and at the same time the environmental requirements are becoming stricter. To deal with the climate change and the greenhouse gas emissions, the use of fossil fuel need to decrease, while the energy efficiency and renewable energy production must increase. A greater share of intermittent renewable energy on the electricity market entails challenges. If there is no need for electricity when the wind is blowing or when the sun is shining the electricity is lost, this leads to production and consumption of electricity must occur simultaneously. To expand the renewable energy and make it more efficient, society must develop a smart grid. There are different opinions about what it takes to create smart grids, but electrical energy storage, EES, reappears frequently in the literature. There are even scientists who believe that investment in intermittent renewable energy sources is not an option unless energy can be stored. Compressed air energy storage is a technique that uses compressed air to store energy until there is a demand.   The Swedish industry accounts for over a third of total energy consumption in the country. Over 90 % of the all manufacturing industry uses compressed air. There are big and small users of compressed air depending on the industry.  In this study, an international status description is given in the development of smart grids with a focus on electrical energy storage systems. The aim of this study is to be an information carrier that creates discussion and new ideas. The international status description is based on field visits, literature surveys and interviews. The results from the international status description shows that interest in electric energy storage systems is increasing since it is a central part in the development of smart grids. Between 2011 and 2013 the investments increased in electrical energy storage with 521 %. One reason for this increase is the international trend of micro grids and small decentralized power plants. With the increased demand for energy storage, new energy storage systems are created and existing systems evolve. The purpose of the study is also to examine if energy storage is a solution for a sustainable supply of compressed air in the industry. The goal is to design a compressed air system consisting of wind turbines and energy storage with a certain volume and maximum pressure, for a large and a small compressed air consumer. The study will also determine the cost saving for the big users is an optimized through arbitrage. The design is based on simulations in Simulink and the optimization is done in MATLAB. The selected compressed air system for the large consumer is based on one wind turbine, energy storage of 200 m3 with a maximum pressure of 10 bar. The coverage ratio, i.e. the proportion of the air need that is covered by wind energy with energy storage, is 26 %. An investment in this system would give reduced energy consumption by 48 % leading to a cost reduction of about 1.2 million SEK and a reduced environmental impact equivalent to 532 tons of CO2-equivalents. The generator then has an efficiency of 85 %, and the compressor has 90 %. The selected compressed air system for the smaller consumer achieves a coverage rate of 61 % with the following dimensions; one windmill, energy storage of 20 m3 and maximum pressure of 30 bar. An investment in this system would give a reduced energy consumption by 93 %, leading to a cost reduction of about 26 000 SEK and a reduced environmental impact equivalent to 10.7 ton of CO2 equivalents. The difference between a windmill and a wind turbine is that the windmill does not produce electricity instead it uses kinetic energy directly. A system consisting of energy storage driven by energy from the wind is more suited for smaller air requirements where it is possible to achieve greater coverage. The transition to smart grids is necessary to be able to meet all aspects of sustainable development. There is no part of smart grids that is more important. Sustainable use of compressed air in industry is a part of smart grids and to make it possible energy storage is crucial. The international status description shows that there is a growing international interest in EES but there isn’t one EES alone that will solve the integration of renewable energy. The techniques for energy storage are existing today and are growing tomorrow.

Access to modern energy is central to addressing important global development challenges including poverty, inequality, climate change, food security, health and education. The understanding of the concept of energy poverty is critical when making any attempts to alleviate it. Lack of access to sustainable energy is also a major factor preventing social and economic development, both of which are linked to sustainable poverty reduction. However, worldwide access to energy has shown very slow progress because of the costs associated with electric grid extensions and decentralized systems by which power is offered. This study investigates the viability of implementing solar energy in poor communities in Inanda, which is located in Durban, South Africa. Inanda is known to be an area with high unemployment and high poverty levels. Most important to this study are high energy poverty levels in the area. It was found that these communities prioritised energy for cooking, lighting and heating. The results of this study also indicate that in most households, multiple sources of unsustainable energy sources were being used. These included electricity, fuelwood, gas, paraffin and candles. Illegal electrical connections are a growing problem in this community, and other traditional sources were found to have numerous effects on human and environmental health. Upon investigation of the potential for renewable energy implementation in these communities, it found that there was a high willingness to use it, specifically solar energy; however, more education is needed regarding solar energy and related benefits. It was also indicated that the provision of sustainable energy will allow more time for income-generating activities in the community. The biggest challenge with regard to provision of solar energy was cost. These communities cannot afford to pay high start-up and maintenance costs for the technology. It is for this reason that efforts should be made to subsidize these costs and integrate this plan into policy-making. This will not only provide poor communities with sustainable energy, but also help advance the renewable energy industry in South Africa. / M.A. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 2013.

Wind power is often presented as a technique for energy production with many environmental benefits, especially since it does not emit any carbon dioxide. Most people are generally positive towards wind power. But when a wind farm is to be implemented on a local level, often resistance occurs. This study investigates how and why local perceptions of a wind farm differ. A qualitative method using interviews was chosen, and the focus has been on an area where a wind farm was planned. The results reveal that advocates have a users’ perspective on nature, while opponents have a conservation perspective. Advocates believe wind power can contribute to a better environment, while opponents believe that preserving natural areas is the best for the environment. Moreover, living in a calm landscape is part of the opponents’ identity, while the identities of the advocates, who often are active farmers, are connected to their ability to live from the land. Thirdly, whether a person recognizes the need for a change towards a renewable energy system or not also matters for the attitude. According to previous research, a person’s relationship to the landscape is of crucial importance for her/his attitude towards wind power implementation, and this is confirmed in the current study. Research also stresses that the visual impact of wind turbines is usually what creates most resistance, but this is not supported. The roles of information and citizen participation, which previous research found significant, are not confirmed as important either: Both were deficient, but this study cannot determine whether a better managed planning process would have made some of the interviewees more positive to it or not. Definitely, the claims from earlier research that Not-In-My-Back-Yard (NIMBY) motives are rarely the reason for resistance are supported.

Bakalauro darbo tikslas - sukurti bei sukonstruoti testinį saulės elektrinės parametrų stebėjimo sistemos prototipą. Buvo sukurti du elektroninės įrangos įrenginiai, parašytos dvi programos (įrenginio valdymo ir duomenų apdorojimo kompiuteryje). Sistemos pagrindą sudaro AtMega168 mikrovaldiklis, per SPI sąsają renkantis duomenis iš matavimo įrenginių ir per LAN juos perduodantis į kompiuterį apdorojimui ir saugojimui. Kompiuterio programinė įranga veikia dvigubo serverio principu: priima matavimo įrenginio siunčiamus duomenis per UDP portą ir, kitame procese, per TCP portą aptarnauja interneto užklausas, gražindama pagal šabloną sugeneruotą tinklapį su naujausiais apdorotais duomenimis. / The objective of bachelor’s project was to design, build and test prototype of a Solar Power Plant Monitoring system. Two hardware pieces and two software (monitoring program for PC and firmware for hardware) items were designed. System is based on AtMega168 microcontroller collecting data from via SPI bus attached measurement device and transmitting collected data to PC software via LAN for processing, displaying and saving the data. PC software works as dual server: receives data from hardware using and, in separate process, services requests from internet users, returning webpage template with most recent processed data.

This study broadly investigates South African energy policy with specific emphasis on the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme (REIPPPP). It investigates how the procurement programme links to rights-based climate justice principles. Climate justice principles have the potential to greatly impact the socio-economic development characteristics of the renewable energy sector. These principles incorporate the notions of participation and self-representation, equality, and the anti-commodification of nature, thus linking to the collective ownership aspect of renewable energy plants. Depending on the procurement model chosen, renewable energy has the potential to offer true broad-based empowerment and developmental benefits to the country. A neo-Gramscian theoretical framework was selected in order to draw links between the renewable energy sector and the political economy which are so entrenched in the Minerals- Energy Complex (MEC). The neo-Gramscian framework demonstrates strength in the uncovering of the shift in the social relations of production and how these interact with the state and the international class project. It is utilised to expose the character of power and hegemony and how the needs of transnational capital are satisfied within local perceptions of development. This research revealed that the renewable energy sector has been annexed by the transnational neoliberal agenda through the non-participative nature of the REIPPPP. To challenge this power relation, the neo-Gramscian notion of a counter-hegemony is particularly pertinent. Community renewables, the focus of this research, are presented as such a counterhegemonic alternative. A number of European countries have successfully integrated community owned renewable energy plants into their energy sectors. Various case studies of community renewables in Denmark, Sweden and the UK respectively are proposed as alternative ownership models to those being promoted in the REIPPPP in South Africa. Barriers to community renewables in the South African context have been identified. These identified barriers allow one to make informed predictions about the future ownership of the renewable energy sector in South Africa. Recommendations are suggested that would work towards promoting a more inclusive and participatory renewable energy sector with greater adherence to climate justice principles. / M. Development and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

The aim of this study is to quantify the social cost of air pollution in Bophelong Township. Bophelong is a dominantly Black low-income settlement located on the South-western part of the Emfuleni Local Municipality in the Vaal Triangle. In 2006 the Vaal Triangle was the first region in the country to be declared an Airshed Priority Area in terms of the National Environmental Management Act (39/2004). Economic literature reveals that there is a strong positive correlation between poverty and pollution. It is on this basis that the study provides a theoretical background to poverty and pollution. The study makes use of a Contingent valuation method to elicit respondents‘ maximum willingness to pay for the reduction of air-pollution in the area. The survey questionnaire covers three broad socio-economic categories namely, the demographic profile, labour force profile and the residents‘ attitudes towards environmental issues. The valuation part of the questionnaire makes use of an open-ended questionnaire to elicit the respondents‘ maximum willingness to pay for the reduction of air pollution in Bophelong. The mean willingness to pay for the reduction of air-pollution in Bophelong is estimated at R132 per annum. The annual social cost of air-pollution in Bophelong is calculated by multiplying the mean willingness to pay with the estimated total population. Bophelong‘s total population was estimated at 49 408. The annual social cost of pollution is thus estimated at R6 521 856. The regression analysis shows that several factors positively influence respondents‘ willingness to pay. The analysis shows that education, employment and level of income are positively correlated with the respondents‘ willingness to pay. This study indicates that there is a positive correlation between poverty and pollution. Most of the air pollution that affects the population of Bophelong is generated from domestic sources such as the burning of coal and biomass fuels for VALUING THE SOCIAL COST OF AIR-POLLUTION IN BOPHELONG TOWNSHIP heating and cooking purposes. In order to eliminate the negative impacts of air pollution on the residents of Bophelong the study recommends that authorities must begin by ameliorating the poverty situation in the area. On the main authorities must introduce measures that target domestic sources of pollution. Some of the measures that could be undertaken to reduce the impact of pollution could include: (a) encouraging residents to adopt the more cleaner top-down coal ignition method known as Basa-njengo-Magogo, (b) providing free basic electricity to poor households in the area and (c) ensuring that houses are constructed with thermal comfort in mind, as this will minimise the need for space heating particularly during winter months. / PhD (Economics), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2013

Energy is the driver of activity in every economy and, therefore, its importance cannot be overemphasised. However, Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) faces general problems of access to modern energy. Most households and industry in SSA use traditional and unclean energy resources for activities such as cooking, lighting and drying of farm produce. Many households in less developed countries have very limited choices with regard to alternatives to traditional energy supplies. Energy poverty is overt in many poor countries, particularly in the Sub-Saharan region where 700 million people are deprived of access to modern energy facilities. In Malawi, less than 6 percent of the population have access to electricity. There are, therefore, many questions regarding the state of energy poverty still to be answered, not only in Malawi, but also the entirety of the SSA region. Questions such as what is the level of energy poverty in these regions? What determines this level of poverty? Why are people not adopting renewable energy facilities for their household needs? Are some energy facilities inferior to others? Such questions were the centre of the present study. These questions are important because, with energy poverty, nearly all the Millennium Development Goals are unachievable and sustainable development could not be a success story where the dominant source of energy for both households and industry is biomass. This study was based on a survey conducted in South Lunzu Township (SLT), which is a low income area to the east of Ndirande Mountain in the city of Blantyre, Malawi. The survey administered a standard questionnaire through face-to-face interviews with heads of households. Data was collected from 319 respondents who were selected through random sampling techniques. The descriptive statistics suggest that the average household size for South Lunzu Township is 5 people. The average age of the sampled respondents was about 38. Energy Poverty and Sustainable Development The findings of the thesis suggest that over 90 percent of the households sampled were energy poor with energy expenditure exceeding 10 percent of total household expenditure. In terms of energy resources used in SLT, 2.9 percent used electricity for cooking meals. Only 2 households, representing 0.63 percent, use liquefied petroleum Gas (LPG) and just 1 household, representing 0.31 percent, depended mostly on solar power. On the other hand, energy facilities that are considered dirty, inefficient and a danger to the heath of people seem to be popular. For instance charcoal and firewood were used by 25 percent and 4.7 percent of the total sample respectively. Most households use a combination of energy facilities; however, those that are considered inferior are preferred. Of the sample, 42 percent use both charcoal and firewood to cook their meals. Further, the results of the Engel functions suggest that charcoal and wood were not regarded as inferior products for the cooking needs of households despite improvements in income. Electricity, which was also regarded as a normal energy resource, had positive income elasticity. To improve access to modern energy facilities at the household level, the thesis recommends that a flexible trade and tax regime, one that will improve the availability and affordability of renewable energy to the majority, should be adopted. The Logit model of energy poverty reveals that household expenditure on transport, income level, age, and education level of the head of household; household size; and home size, are important factors in explaining the level of energy poverty in South Lunzu Township. Further, the results revealed that expenditure on housing and marital status could not be relied upon as important predictors of the probability of energy poverty in South Lunzu. Expenditure on education was associated with lower levels of energy poverty. Households who spent more on schooling also spent more on food items and their expenditure on energy resources was less than 10 percent of the total expenditure per month. In addition, those households that spent more on food were also likely to be energy well-off. Energy Poverty and Sustainable Development Results of the multinomial logit (MNL) model suggest that most socioeconomic variables under study were inelastic in influencing the probability for the outcomes, at the household level, to be used for the purposes of cooking. Statistically, age, income and education level of the head of household, together with household size, were important factors that influenced the choice of most of the outcomes for cooking purposes, including electricity, charcoal, firewood and LP gas. The major recommendation of this study is that campaigns emphasising the abilities of renewable energy be developed and disseminated. That renewable energy is relegated to poor and uncivilised societies is a notion that must be rooted out of the mindset of the average, civilised urban dweller. Also, the use of LP gas for cooking purposes must be encouraged. Import tax regimes that discourage international trade of renewable energy resources must be removed to encourage lower prices on such facilities. These policies would ensure sustainable development by reducing reliance on biomass, which is depleting at a faster rate than it is regenerating. / Thesis (PhD (Economics))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2013

This study broadly investigates South African energy policy with specific emphasis on the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme (REIPPPP). It investigates how the procurement programme links to rights-based climate justice principles. Climate justice principles have the potential to greatly impact the socio-economic development characteristics of the renewable energy sector. These principles incorporate the notions of participation and self-representation, equality, and the anti-commodification of nature, thus linking to the collective ownership aspect of renewable energy plants. Depending on the procurement model chosen, renewable energy has the potential to offer true broad-based empowerment and developmental benefits to the country. A neo-Gramscian theoretical framework was selected in order to draw links between the renewable energy sector and the political economy which are so entrenched in the Minerals- Energy Complex (MEC). The neo-Gramscian framework demonstrates strength in the uncovering of the shift in the social relations of production and how these interact with the state and the international class project. It is utilised to expose the character of power and hegemony and how the needs of transnational capital are satisfied within local perceptions of development. This research revealed that the renewable energy sector has been annexed by the transnational neoliberal agenda through the non-participative nature of the REIPPPP. To challenge this power relation, the neo-Gramscian notion of a counter-hegemony is particularly pertinent. Community renewables, the focus of this research, are presented as such a counterhegemonic alternative. A number of European countries have successfully integrated community owned renewable energy plants into their energy sectors. Various case studies of community renewables in Denmark, Sweden and the UK respectively are proposed as alternative ownership models to those being promoted in the REIPPPP in South Africa. Barriers to community renewables in the South African context have been identified. These identified barriers allow one to make informed predictions about the future ownership of the renewable energy sector in South Africa. Recommendations are suggested that would work towards promoting a more inclusive and participatory renewable energy sector with greater adherence to climate justice principles. / M. Development and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013