Thick-section austenitic stainless steels have widespread industrial applications, especially in nuclear power plants. The joining methods used in the nuclear industry are primarily based on arc welding processes. However, it has recently been shown that the Narrow Gap Laser Welding (NGLW) technique can be used to join materials with thicknesses that are well beyond the capabilities of single pass autogenous laser welding. The heat input for NGLW is much lower than that of arc welding, as are the expected levels of residual stress and distortion. The multi-pass laser welding technique, based on the narrow gap approach, is an emerging welding technology which can be applied to thick-section welds using a relatively low-power laser, but the process is more complicated than autogenous laser welding, since it is necessary to introduce filler wire to narrow gap weld configurations. Despite this complexity, the technique is very promising for improving the penetration capabilities of the laser welding process. However a limited amount of research has been conducted on the development of the NGLW technique; the control and optimization of weld bead quality inside the narrow gap is still an area of weakness. The research described in this thesis involves investigations on NGLW of AISI grade 316L austenitic stainless steel, and the performance of the resulting welds. Design-of-experiments and statistical modelling techniques were employed to understand and optimize the welding process. A statistical model was used in order to understand the significant process parameters and their interactions, allowing improved control of the weld quality in ultra-narrow gap (1.5 mm gap width) welds. The results show a significant improvement in weld quality can be achieved through the use of statistical modelling and multi-variable optimisation. The microstructure characteristics and mechanical properties (e.g. tensile strengths, fatigue, bending strength and fracture toughness) of the NGLW samples were examined and compared with those of other welding techniques - autogenous laser welding and gas-tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The work shows that NGLW of 316L steel sheets up to 20 mm thickness have generally better or comparable mechanical properties than those of GTAW but with much higher welding productivity. The results of detailed investigations of the 2D residual stress distributions, material distortions, and plastic strain characteristics of the NGLW technique are described. The contour method was employed for residual stress evaluation of the NGLW technique, and the results were validated using X-Ray and neutron diffraction measurements. The results were compared with those obtained with GTAW. The results suggest that the longitudinal tensile residual stresses in NGLW joints are 30-40% lower than those for GTAW joints. The influence of the laser power and number of passes for the NGLW technique, on the developed residual stress and plastic strain has been investigated, and the influence of welding strategy and the use of restraint during welding were also investigated. To understand the thermal history in NGLW and its effect on residual stress, finite element analysis was carried out using ABAQUS to numerically model the behaviour of residual stress across the multipass NGLW weld joints. The model has been validated with the experiments using temperature measurements and in terms of residual stresses the model is compared with neutron diffraction and the contour method. There is a very good correlation between the model and experimental results. The influence of both the laser power and welding speed on the induced residual stress during the NGLW process was also investigated using the model. The aqueous, pitting and stress corrosion cracking behaviour of the NGLW joints were investigated, and the results compared to those for GTAW joints under the same conditions. The results show that NGLW joints have better resistance to pitting corrosion than the GTA welds. Preliminary results also suggest that NGLW has better resistance to stress corrosion cracking.

Welding is an essential process in many industries for both the production and repair of engineering plant, notably pressure vessels and piping. However, welding processes cause large magnitudes of residual stress to be induced within the structure. Residual stress can be defined as a stress that exists in a material when it is under no primary loading. Whilst residual stresses can be reduced by post weld heat treatment, such treatments are not always possible, and so high residual stresses can remain in serviceThe current methodology for evaluating fracture toughness from specimens, particularly if these contain weld residual stresses is presented in BS7448-1997. This method relies on the assumption that the effect of residual stress on fracture toughness measurements can be negated by the application of a local compression, to the ligament ahead of the pre-crack in the test specimen. Recent research has investigated the validity of this assumption. The results suggest that, far from being removed, the residual stresses are modified or even enhanced via local compression. This can reduce the value of measured fracture toughness below its true value. In order to ensure the validity of fracture toughness measurements in materials that contain residual stress, a more robust method for its quantification is developed.The aim of this project was to extend current understanding regarding the magnitude and distribution of residual stresses retained in standard fracture mechanics specimens removed from welds and the consequent effects of these stresses on measured fracture toughness, both in terms of the crack driving force and crack-tip constraint. Furthermore, the project aimed to derive improved methods for the quantification of valid values of fracture toughness from laboratory specimens containing residual stresses. This was achieved via a combination of analytical and experimental work.The effect of specimen extraction on the level of retained residual stress in specimens extracted from non stress-relieved welds was investigated using parametric finite element analyses. Simplified methods to quantify the levels of residual stresses in fracture mechanics specimens removed from welds and their significance, in terms of contribution to crack driving force, are proposed.The influence of residual stresses on the measured fracture toughness properties of ferritic pressure vessel steel, tested in the cleavage fracture regime, has also been studied. A refined method of out-of-plane compression was devised and used to generate significant residual stresses in three-point bend specimens. This method was then used experimentally, alongside supporting elastic-plastic analyses, to quantify the effects of the residual stresses on fracture toughness in terms of both crack driving force and crack-tip constraint in geometrically high and low constraint specimens. A method whereby fracture toughness data, obtained from specimens containing residual stresses, can be corrected to provide valid fracture toughness properties using constraint based fracture mechanics alongside a simple fracture model has been proposed. The main conclusions from the work are as follows. Significant weld residual stresses have been shown to be retained in certain laboratory specimens post extraction from non stress-relieved welds. The magnitude and distribution of retained residual stress has been shown to be dependant on: • Material yield and flow properties • Specimen size; where larger specimens are more likely to retain significant levels of residual stress than smaller specimens • Specimen type; either compact tension (CT) or single edge notched bend (SENB), where there is a tendency for specimens to retain higher relative levels of residual stress in the directions of their largest dimensions; i.e. bend specimens retain more residual stress along their length than CT specimens and CT specimens retain more residual stress across their width than bend specimens • Extraction location, e.g. full thickness, near surface, mid-thickness etc. The stress partitioning method has been shown to provide a useful estimating approach for assessing the levels of residual stress retained in fracture mechanics specimens extracted from non stress-relieved welds in certain orientations.Retained residual stresses have been shown to affect both crack driving force and crack-tip constraint in both low and high geometrically constrained 50mm bend specimens manufactured from A533B ferritic steel. The residual stress has been shown to dominate the level of crack-tip constraint condition over and above the geometric and loading factors during the early stages of loading. The effects of residual stress on crack driving force and crack-tip constraint have been shown to result in fracture loads and, therefore, measured fracture toughness values that vary widely from those to be expected in the material under small-scale yielding conditions; i.e. if a standard specimen were to be tested containing no residual stress. Two-parameter (J-Q) fracture mechanics has been shown to provide a valid approach for quantifying fracture toughness properties from high and low constraint specimens, with and without residual stresses, with all data being shown to be consistent with a J-Q failure locus for a given level of cleavage probability.

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Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS™) is a rapid-manufacturing procedure that involves complex thermal, mechanical, and metallurgical interactions. The finite element method (FEM) may be used to accurately model this process, allowing for optimized selection of input parameters, and, hence, the fabrication of components with improved thermo-mechanical properties. In this study the commercial FEM code SYSWELD® is used to predict the thermal histories and residual stresses generated in LENS™-produced thin plates of AISI 410 stainless steel built by varying the process parameters laser power and stage translation speed. The computational results are compared with experimental measurements for validation, and a parametric study is performed to determine how the thermo-mechanical properties vary with these parameters. Thermal calculations are also performed with the code ABAQUS® to evaluate its potential use as a modeling tool for the LENS™ process.

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Surface integrity is of great significance in grinding performance since grinding process is often used as a finishing step. For metallic materials, residual stresses play an important role in surface integrity for its strong effect on fatigue life, corrosion resistance, and part distortion. For ceramic materials, the surface damage induced by grinding process could greatly affect the mechanical strength and surface finish of the component. The functional behavior of machined components can be enhanced or impaired by the grinding process. Because of this, understanding the surface integrity imparted by grinding is very important. The use of fluid is common in grinding process, however, the high cost and environmental impact of the conventional flood cooling is very undesirable. The minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) have been introduced in industry for about two decades as a promising alternative to conventional flood cooling for economical and environmental advantages. A comprehensive understanding of the MQL effect on the process performances and surface integrity is of great value to the implementation of MQL technique in industrial situation. Grinding-induced residual stress prediction has been a topic of research since the 1970’s while the studies of MQL grinding is still on the early stage with experimental investigations. A comprehensive study and quantitative description of MQL effect on the residual stress generation in grinding is highly demanded. On the other hand, although there has been significant research in the area of surface damage in ceramic grinding, there are still opportunities for advancing predictive methods. Therefore, the objectives of the current research are set as follows: (1) develop a method of predicting residual stress based on an analytical description of the grinding process under MQL condition, (2) develop a method of predicting surface finish and damage in ceramic grinding, and (3) validate the model with experimental data. The research will first focus on predicting residual stresses in MQL grinding based on first principles. This includes predictive models of grinding forces, and grinding temperature stemmed from grinding kinematics and dynamics principles as part of the overall modeling effort. The effect of MQL on both lubrication and cooling aspects has been integrated into these models. The mechanical and thermal output parameters will serve as the basis for determining the loading history which generate residual stresses. The research will also aim at surface roughness modeling in ceramic grinding. A ductile-brittle mixed surface generation is predicted based on the nature of ceramic materials and grinding kinematics. The crack system developed from indentation fracture mechanics approach will be utilized in evaluating the brittle mode surface generation. The modeling techniques will be applied to a range of grinding conditions and materials. This research would aid in evaluating various surface integrities in grinding of metallic and ceramic materials with little experimental efforts. The output could be used to machine these materials effectively to order to improve the functionality of the component.

This thesis concerns residual stress modeling in soft living tissues. The word living means that the tissue interacts with surrounding organs and that it can change its internal properties to optimize its function. From the first day all tissues are under pressure, due, for example, to gravity, other surrounding organs that utilize pressure on the specific tissue, and the pressure from the blood that circulates within the body. This means that all organs grow and change properties under load, and an unloaded configuration is never present within the body. When a tissue is removed from the body, the obtained unloaded state is not naturally stress free. This stress within an unloaded body is called residual stress. It is believed that the residual stress helps the tissue to optimize its function by homogenizing the transmural stress distribution. The thesis is composed of two parts: in the first part an introduction to soft tissues and basic modeling is given and the second part consist of a collection of five manuscripts. The first four papers show how residual stress can be modeled. We also derive evolution equation for growth and remodeling and show how residual stress develops under constant pressure. The fifth paper deals with damage and viscosity in soft tissues.

Na construção de cascos resistentes de submarinos são utilizados, frequentemente, os processos de conformação a frio e de soldagem. Estes processos produzem na estrutura deformações plásticas permanentes originando tensões residuais. A presença das tensões residuais é equivalente a introduzir uma pré-carga inicial na estrutura, o que acelera o processo de plastificação, reduzindo à capacidade de resistência da estrutura à pressão hidrostática. Para quantificar esta redução foi realizado, inicialmente, um estudo considerando a presença das tensões residuais devido à conformação a frio das chapas do casco e do flange das cavernas, para submarinos com 6, 8 e 10 m de diâmetro, em aço HY100. Para isso, um modelo não-linear foi produzido considerando não-linearidades geométricas e de material. Complementarmente, também foi estudada a influência de perfis de tensões residuais definidos a partir de resultados experimentais na redução da pressão de colapso do casco resistente do submarino espanhol S-80. Estes perfis consideram a presença simultânea de tensões residuais de conformação e de soldagem. Em todos os modelos estudados, as tensões residuais foram introduzidas no modelo numérico utilizando o comando INISTATE disponível no software comercial Ansys. Este comando é frequentemente utilizado na literatura em modelos numéricos envolvendo tensões residuais e foi validado utilizando três modelos de referência disponíveis na literatura. Ao final, pôde-se verificar que a presença das tensões residuais acelera a plastificação do casco resistente e reduz a pressão de colapso em até 5%, sendo a tensão residual de conformação a que mais contribuí nesta redução. De qualquer forma, pôde-se concluir que a influência das tensões residuais é pequena quando comparada com a pressão de colapso obtida para cada casco resistente analisado. / During the manufacturing of submarine pressure hull are often applied processes like cold forming and welding. Those processes lead to permanent plastic deformations which are associated with residual stresses. The presence of residual stresses is equivalent to the introduction of an initial pre-load in the structure, which accelerates the plastification process, decreasing hull pressure resistance. To quantify this reduction, a case study that considers residual stresses due to cold forming on hull and flange plates has been performed. The study encompasses hull diameters of 6, 8 and 10 m, made of HY100 steel. A nonlinear model has been done, considering material and geometric non-linearity. Complementarily, the influence of experimental residual stresses profiles on the reduction of collapse pressure of the Spanish S-80 submarine has been studied. These profiles consider the simultaneous presence of residual stresses due to cold forming and welding. In all studied models, the residual stresses have been introduced in the numerical models through INISTATE Ansys software command. This command has been validated using three reference models available in open source literature. In the end, it has been possible to verify that the presence of residual stresses increase the hull plastification and reduces the collapse pressure up to 5%, being the cold forming induced stress which most contributes to this reduction. Finally, it could be concluded, in the end of the study, that the influence of the residual stresses is small when compared with the collapse pressure obtained for the analyzed pressure hulls.

The finite difference method was used to calculate the variable heat transfer coefficient required to maximize mechanical properties of heat treated wrought 7075 aluminum alloy without causing residual stress. Quench simulation enabled determination of maximum surface heat flux bordering on inducing plastic flow in the work piece. Quench Factor Analysis was used to correlate cylinder diameter to yield strength in the T73 condition. It was found that the maximum bar diameter capable of being quenched without residual stress while meeting military mechanical design minimums is 2". It was also found that the cooling rate must increase exponentially and that the maximum cooling rate needed to achieve minimum mechanical properties is well within the capability of metals heat treatment industry.