The sanitary collection, transportation, treatment and disposal of human waste promotes health, improves the quality of the environment and thus, the quality of life in a community. Some poor communities in developing countries, rarely consider inadequate excreta disposal a problem. In absence of sanitation facilities, these communities rely on natural processes to dispose of their waste, wherein the practice of defecating in the open fields or on surface water is prevalent. / In communities occupying coastal, waterfront and low-lying areas, human waste is directly disposed of into the surface water such as rivers, canals and sea or in the mudflat to await the tide. These surface waters, however, are often the communities' sources of food, and water for drinking, domestic and personal cleaning. Studies on sanitation show that contaminated water and human wastes are major factors in the transmission of serious diseases in the developing world. / This thesis aims to contribute to the process of selecting appropriate sanitation technologies for the low-income coastal and waterfront communities. The thesis analyzes sanitation and environmental conditions in the coastal communities of Puerto Princesa, Palawan Province, Philippines, to identify the important considerations for the provision of sanitation systems in these communities and hence, determine the feasible sanitation options.

Groundwater plays an important role in water supply to rural communities. This statement is supported by the survey conducted at clinics within the Limpopo Province where the majority of aquifers in the area can be classified as Sole Source aquifers, supplying 50 % or more of domestic water in the absence of any reasonable alternative. The water quality study also concluded that the impact from on site sanitation on the groundwater system is significant given that 44 % of water samples of clinics with their own water supply classified as either poor or dangerous quality according to DWAF criteria and poses a significant health risk to susceptible individuals. Groundwater quality should therefore be protected with an emphasis on prevention as in most cases groundwater pollution is difficult to reverse and remediation is often a lengthy and expensive exercise. Although South Africa has all the legal tools to promote sustainable development, financial considerations are usually the driving force behind technology selection and not social or environmental aspects. The aim of this research is to develop an environmental impact assessment methodology and decision support framework that will aid in the selection of the most appropriate on site sanitation technology for a given area integrating environmental, economical and social criteria. The decision support framework developed in this study had a strong stakeholder component, involving stakeholders in the decision making process from the conception of the project through to the resolution of actions. Providing objective information about the performance of options, coupled with an opportunity to participate in the decision-making process, increases the awareness and commitment of the community. Field testing of the decision support framework produced good results and sensible recommendations were made with regard to alternative selection. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Geography and Environmental Studies))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Over the last two decades, sanitation policy and development has undergone a paradigm shift away from heavily-subsidized, supply-driven approaches towards behavioral-based demand-driven approaches. These current approaches to increase sanitation demand are multi-faceted, requiring multiple stakeholders with varying degrees of interest, knowledge, and capacity. Although efforts exist to increase sanitation access by incorporating engineering design principles with implementation planning approaches, these groups generally work independently without strong connections, thus reducing the potential of their impact. As a result, the design of appropriate sanitation technology is disengaged from the implementation of acceptable technology into communities, disconnecting user preference integration from sanitation technology design and resulting in fewer sanitation technologies being adopted and used. To address these challenges in developing successful interventions, this research examined how user preferences for specific attributes of appropriate sanitation technologies and their respective implementation arrangements influence their adoption and usage. Data for the study included interviews of 1002 sanitation users living in a peri-urban area of South Africa; the surveyed respondents were asked about their existing sanitation technology, their preferences for various sanitation technology design attributes, as well as their perspectives on current and preferred sanitation implementation arrangements. The data revealed that user acceptability of appropriate sanitation technology is influenced by the adoption classification of the users. Through the identification of motives and barriers to sanitation usage that were statistically significant, it exhibited the need to differentiate users who share private sanitation from those use communal sanitation facilities. Results also indicated that user acceptability of appropriate sanitation systems is dependent on the technical design attributes of sanitation. The development of utility functions detailed the significance of seven technical design attributes and determined their respective priorities. An agent-based simulation examined how user preferences for sanitation technology design and implementation influence its adoption and usage. Findings suggest that user acceptability of sanitation technology is dependent on both the technology design and the implementation arrangement being preferred.

This thesis is about many things, not least of all the September 4th 2010 and February 22nd 2011 earthquakes that shook Christchurch, New Zealand. A city was shaken, events which worked to lay open the normally invisible yet vital objects, processes and technologies which are the focus of inquiry: the sewers, pipes, pumps, the digital technologies, the land and politics which constitute the Christchurch wastewater networks. The thesis is an eclectic mix drawing together methods and concepts from Bruno Latour, John Law, Giles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, Nigel Thrift, Donna Haraway and Patrick Joyce. It is an exploration of how the technologies and objects of sanitation perform the city, and how such things which are normally hidden and obscured, are made visible. The question of visibility is also turned toward the research itself: how does one observe, and describe? How are sociological visibilities constructed? Through the research, the encountering of objects in the field, the processes of method, the pedagogy of concepts, and the construction of risk, the thesis comes to be understood as a particular kind of social scientific artefact which assembles four different accounts: the first regards the construction of visibility; the second explores Christchurch city from the control room where the urban sanitary infrastructures are monitored; the third chapter looks at the formatted and embodied practices which emerge with the correlation of the city and sanitation; the fourth looks at the changing politics of a city grappling with severely damaged essential services, land and structures. The final chapter considers how the differences between romantic and baroque sensibilities mean that these four accounts elicit knowing not through smoothness or uniformity, but in partiality and non-coherence. This thesis is about pipes, pump stations, and treatment plants; about the effluent of a city; about the messiness of social science when confronted by the equally messy world of wastewater.

Groundwater plays an important role in water supply to rural communities. This statement is supported by the survey conducted at clinics within the Limpopo Province where the majority of aquifers in the area can be classified as Sole Source aquifers, supplying 50 % or more of domestic water in the absence of any reasonable alternative. The water quality study also concluded that the impact from on site sanitation on the groundwater system is significant given that 44 % of water samples of clinics with their own water supply classified as either poor or dangerous quality according to DWAF criteria and poses a significant health risk to susceptible individuals. Groundwater quality should therefore be protected with an emphasis on prevention as in most cases groundwater pollution is difficult to reverse and remediation is often a lengthy and expensive exercise. Although South Africa has all the legal tools to promote sustainable development, financial considerations are usually the driving force behind technology selection and not social or environmental aspects. The aim of this research is to develop an environmental impact assessment methodology and decision support framework that will aid in the selection of the most appropriate on site sanitation technology for a given area integrating environmental, economical and social criteria. The decision support framework developed in this study had a strong stakeholder component, involving stakeholders in the decision making process from the conception of the project through to the resolution of actions. Providing objective information about the performance of options, coupled with an opportunity to participate in the decision-making process, increases the awareness and commitment of the community. Field testing of the decision support framework produced good results and sensible recommendations were made with regard to alternative selection. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Geography and Environmental Studies))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

The biogas plant Kungsängens gård, owned by Uppsala Vatten och Avfall AB, produces biogas and biomanure from organic household waste, food processing waste and slaughterhouse waste. In year 2012, 4.4 million Nm3 of biogas were produced from 25 200 tons of waste. Before digestion all substrate is sanitized by pasteurization at 70°C in order to kill pathogens. Another method, integrated thermophilic sanitation (ITS), is of interest in order to decrease the energy demand. The method implies that the substrate is sanitized during ten hours in the digestion chamber, where the temperature is 52°C. The purpose of this thesis was to compare pasteurization with integrated thermophilic sanitation from an energy point of view. The pasteurization´s impact on biogas production and energy yield was examined through experiments with two laboratory digesters, of which one was fed with pasteurized substrate and the other with non-pasteurized substrate. For the present pasteurization system, electricity and heat demand was surveyed. For the integrated thermophilic sanitation, a process design was developed and dimensioned and the electricity and heat demand was calculated. Thereafter, the energy yield and energy demand for the two sanitation systems were compared. The result showed that pasteurization had no effect on biogas production. The energy yield was on average 4.79 kWh/kg VS from non-pasteurized substrate and 4.74 kWh/kg VS from pasteurized substrate. There was no statistically significant difference between the reactors. The energy audit showed that pasteurization required 0.48 kWh/kg VS, which is 85 % of the total energy consumption at the facility. The digester warming demanded 0.077 kWh/kg VS for RK1 and 0.031 kWh/kg VS for RK2. The electricity consumption was 0.041 kWh/kg VS. The process of ITS was designed with a heat exchange from bio manure to substrate, followed by heating to 52°C by steam addition. The heat requirement was 0.24 kWh/kg VS and the electricity demand was 0.034 kWh/kg VS. The warming of the digesters was the same as in the present pasteurization system. The comparison between the existing pasteurization and the ITS showed that switching systems would save 0.243 kWh/kg VS or 46 % of the present energy consumption. This corresponds to annual savings of 1.22 GWh. A sensitivity analysis showed that the results were sensitive to assumptions regarding the heat exchanger in the case of ITS. 10 % energy losses resulted in smaller savings, 34 % or 0.91 GWh per year. There are increased risks of process disruptions if ITS is combined with an increased organic loading rate. 4.2 % reduction of the total biogas production erases the energy savings which means that it is important that process stability is ensured.

Food tampering in foodservice facilities, especially with self-serve foods, can result in consumer illness or injury and adversely affect the foodservice organization. This study explored foodservice managers' awareness and perceptions of risk and evaluated a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)-based program of food tampering hazard reduction developed for managers. The study had two phases, descriptive and experimental. The purpose of phase one was to determine food tampering awareness and opinions, to obtain descriptive information about foodservice managers and their facilities, and to identify the population for phase two. The purpose of phase two was to evaluate an educational workbook, which had been developed by the researcher, using a post-test for the experimental and control samples. One thousand foodservice managers in commercial and non-commercial foodservices were contacted by mailed questionnaires in phase one; 376 continued on to phase two, one-half received both a food tampering risk reduction self-instructional workbook and a post-test; 238 completed the study. The post-test included a food tampering hazard inspection form used to evaluate facilities. The managers' changes in opinions and actions to reduce food tampering hazards and their understanding of a HACCP-based program were identified and comparisons made through chi square analyses. More non-commercial foodservice managers than commercial managers had college degrees, but there was no significant association between education level and food tampering concern. Managers with self-serve foods reported greater concern than those without; managers aware of food tampering reported greater concern. Managers who had received the self-instructional workbook had greater ability to identify food tampering hazards through floor plan evaluation. No significant changes in food tampering concern or intent to take action to reduce risk were found after the post-test. However, increased awareness led to a trend of increased concern. It was concluded that the questionnaire and post-test both had educational effects on the participants. The workbook and the inspection form are suggested as an educational program to increase awareness and concern for food tampering and the intent to reduce food tampering hazards by foodservice managers. / Graduation date: 1993

Thesis (D.P.H.)--University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1991. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 156-162). / Microfiche. / xvi, 162 leaves, bound ill. 29 cm

Capacity development has long been considered a cornerstone of development. While the development industry’s commitment to capacity development has been fraught with debate about its ambiguous nature and lack of associated success, after more than thirty years of experience, there is now widespread agreement that capacity development is a priority for development. There is also renewed understanding that an alternative development paradigm is at the core of capacity development and core principles and good practice guidelines are emerging. However, while there has been a transformation in thinking, much of the development industry is entrenched in existing practices and there remains a gap between the theory that is espoused and capacity development in practice. Currently, the development industry is in transition. This transition is necessary and unavoidable if the development challenges faced by billions of people are to be addressed. This research sought to identify ways to facilitate this transition and close the gap between theory and practice. The research was underpinned by a pragmatic philosophical perspective. As such, a central aim of the research was to make a practical contribution to improving practice. A design-based research methodology was used to carry out research into the practice of delivering two capacity development interventions: 1) the Public Sector Linkages Program (PSLP) Project; and, 2) the Sustainable Sanitation and Wetlands Technology (SSWT) Project. These interventions were designed to develop Indonesian capacity in water and sanitation. In design-based research, practice and research are carried out concurrently. This methodology provided an opportunity to advance understanding of the relationship between capacity development theory based on the alternative paradigm and improved practice. A Framework for Capacity Development is the main outcome of this research. The Framework provides specific guidance regarding the design of capacity development interventions based on the alternative paradigm. The Framework was found to facilitate the design of interventions with improved processes and outcomes. Further application of the Framework in different contexts is recommended.

Tegel Foods Limited produces an extensive range of poultry products which may contain various potential allergens. These include wheat, soy, milk, and egg, sometimes in combination. This research has two purposes. One was to examine three cleaning stages of processing equipments – Rinse only, Foam and rinse and Sanitise and rinse to validate the efficacy of cleaning required between production runs where the first but not the second product contains the allergen. The allergen chosen to model the cleaning efficacy was gliadin, a protein in wheat. The second aim was to quantify allergenic risk to consumers from inadequately cleaned conveyer surfaces. The commercial motives driving this research were as follows. Cleaning represents a loss in productivity and an increase in consumables costs, and if it can be minimised, this would be advantageous. The requirement to declare the possibility of cross-contamination on retail packaging can potentially adversely affect consumer response, and if these declarations can be avoided then this too would be a commercial advantage. Three approaches were adopted or developed, an ATP bioluminescence test, an ELISA test kit for gliadin, and a Coomassie Blue test to quantify protein given that most allergens are proteins. Fifteen trials were done in the High Care Zone and the Old Further Processing line of the Tegel Henderson Plant production area over a period of nine months. In a typical trial, gliadin values normalised to Uncleaned values fell from 1000 (Uncleaned) arbitrary units, to 60 (Rinse only), to 0.3 (Foam and rinse), to zero (Sanitise and rinse). Parallel ATP tests similarly showed a progressive decrease in values. Compared with Uncleaned, the relative gliadin value was less than the relative ATP value after Foam and rinse in 14 of 14 trials. After Sanitise and rinse the same result was obtained. In the equivalent trials with ATP and Coomassie Blue, after cleaning of Foam and rinse and Sanitise and rinse, the relative ATP values exceeded the relative Coomassie Blue values in four of the five trials. Therefore the considerably cheaper and simpler ATP test is not only an indicator of hygiene but also a good guide to gliadin concentration (gliadin test), and to allergen contamination in general on the basis that allergens are mostly proteins (Coomassie Blue). Modelling of second-product contamination has been done, and was based on knowledge of the absolute gliadin concentration on a typical Uncleaned conveyer surface, as established in the first part of this project. The concept of the worst-case scenario examined the highest possible risk that a sensitive consumer would be exposed to an allergenic dose of gliadin. A pickup efficiency fraction of 0.3 was assumed as an upper limit of contamination from conveyer to the surface of a previously uncontaminated chicken piece. The model showed that the highest concentration of gliadin on the second product would be 6.3 ppm which is below the legislated limit of low-gluten. Information of direct commercial interest to Tegel has been extracted from all these results, and suggestions for future research have been made.