Background: Estimations from the Joint Monitoring program for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP, 2012) reveal that “less than five percent of water and sanitation interventions are revisited once they have been completed and less than one percent are monitored over the long term”. Since 2000, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC) has been working with the American Red Cross (ARC) to evaluate the long-term sustainability of post-disaster water, sanitation and hygiene interventions (WASH) provided in Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and El Salvador. Sustainability assessments were conducted in 2006, 2009 and most recently in 2012. In the 2012 evaluation, a qualitative approached was included to extent the results obtained from quantitative surveys through an exploration of individual perceptions and current practices. Methodology: Key-informant interviews were conducted with the heads of household in 15 communities purposively selected. All interviews were recorded, transcribed, coded and analyzed using the computer assisted qualitative data analysis software MAXQDA10 Results: Interviewees discussed issues related to the quality, safety and adequacy of the water and sanitation infrastructure and hygiene education sessions received. Issues of corruption in the water committees and delayed repair of damaged infrastructure resulting in erratic service were frequently reported. In addition, lack of financial support, community engagement, and equity were identified by heads of household as major limitations to sustain and improve WASH interventions. Conclusions: This exploration provides valuable information to further examine the factors driving people’s adoption of hygienic practices and maintenance of water and sanitation facilities in the Central American region.

Because of the impact on human health and sustainable livelihood, the topic of drinking water and sanitation facilities is becoming a seriously discussed issue among international organizations as well as developing agencies in industrialized countries. The importance of water and sanitation management initialized this master thesis.   The aim of the project is to do an assessment of the drinking water quality as well as the sanitation situation in the village Condrita in the Republic of Moldova. This was done by studying the existing water and sanitation facilities, sampling the water, evaluating the reason for the poor water quality and mapping the current situation using ArcGIS. Furthermore, technologies for improving the drinking water and sanitation facilities are suggested.   The work was carried out by doing a literature study on how water sources and sanitation facilities should be constructed in order to ensure people’s health and to meet their needs. Geographic coordinates and water samples were collected from twenty-two public wells and springs. Interviews on the water situation and sanitation facilities were performed. Furthermore, water samples were analysed with respect to nitrate, turbidity, electrical conductivity and coliform bacteria amongst others. Pesticide contamination was also taken into consideration when one of the wells was analysed. Water sources were classified as improved or unimproved according to definitions by WHOSIS. Moreover, the DRASTIC vulnerability model was used to evaluate the groundwater susceptibility to contaminants.   In general, the water quality in the study area was poor and measured values of the analyzed parameters exceeded international or Moldovan standards for nitrate, hardness, electrical conductivity and total coliform bacteria. Four wells were contaminated with E. coli bacteria. Furthermore, turbidity measurements exceeded Moldovan standards in seven out of twenty-two water sources. No pesticide contamination was detected. Sampled water from the densely populated parts of the village as well as unimproved water sources proved to be of poorer quality. Map results showed that a majority of the groundwater within the study area was subject to a moderate or high risk of becoming contaminated. The current sanitation situation is that most families use simple pit latrines, which are placed far away from the dwelling-houses. Digging a new toilet when the existing one is full is a common practice in Condrita. Hand-washing facilities are seldom placed in proximity to the toilets.   Pit latrines are believed to be the most important source of groundwater contamination in the study area. Other sources are agricultural activities and poor practice when abstracting water from the wells. A feasible solution to improve both the drinking water quality and the sanitation situation would be to install ecosan toilets. Improvements of the well’s features that are suggested include construction of an apron slab as well as proper lids for covering the well.

The purpose of this thesis is to understand and analyse the issues of grey water generation and disposal in peri-urban areas of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania and to propose a suitable solution to which includes designing a treatment system for grey water (water from shower, washing and kitchen). The purification will eliminate the sanitation issues that are brought by exposing untreated grey water to the environment as well save freshwater. This will be implemented with regard to local conditions in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Water-borne and vector-borne diseases are mainly brought by untreated grey water, which sadly enough causes thousands of death cases every year in Tanzania. The year between 2004- 2005, 154551 cases of dysentery were reported with 170 deaths. It was also reported, 863488 cases of typhoid with 1167 deaths and last but not least 12923 cases of cholera from with 350 deaths. Deaths that were caused by diarrhoea were also reported, whereby, 90 % of them are children. According to the interviews that were conducted, people would not want to recycle the grey water for example for washing due to socio-cultural context where water is considered dirty even after treatment. They had difficulties in believing that the same dirty grey water can be purified and reused again for various domestic activities. The conducted characterisation of grey water showed the tested grey water has relatively high levels of BOD, basic pH, higher than average values of TSS, relatively low levels of DO, increased salinity and average level of FC. The analyses were performed on the most polluted grey water from every source. The volume of household produced grey water varies strongly, depending on socio-economic situation of the household and type of access to water supply. From estimation, the volume varies approximately between 60 -160 l/day and household for a low income household. Living wall was proposed as grey water treatment system, because of its suitability to the peri-urban settlement and tropical climate. The system consists of concrete boxes placed over each other, filled with inner porous material and planted with plants. The system purifies grey water as it percolates through it and at the same time provides a vertical space for growing plants. The plants for the treatment system were chosen to Typha latifolia and Scirpus species. The plants are growing in Tanzania and are being used for wastewater treatment purposes. The plants are tolerant to increased salinity and can grow in alkaline soil. The cleaning effectiveness of the system was not tested, but only roughly estimated with help of values from a similar treatment system build in Gotland, Sweden. Hence, the reuse of grey water in this geographical location suits best for irrigation in rural and peri-urban areas with potential for agriculture as well as groundwater recharge in the peri-urban and urban areas. Recharging groundwater with treated grey water has a potential to be observed as an indirect and long term reuse of the water as it reconnects in the hydrological cycle.

An average American consumes 52 kg of Frozen food, while an European consumes 40 kg, and a Japanese consume 12 kg. Compared to these advanced nations, China¡¦s consumer behavior and power can be viewed as uncultivated and full of potential. Thus, taking in China¡¦s long culinary history and long tradition of its cuisine, if food technology can be integrated into these specialties, there will be a bright future for China¡¦s frozen food market. This report collects its data from Access Asia Limited: Frozen Food In China Market Analysis and from focusing on frozen prepared food , investigates the growth, size, selection and advantage of the frozen food market in China The city of Shanghai is the most prosperous, goverened and educated city in China. With a well developed infrastructure and modernized malls, Shanghai provides the best environment for fostering a frozen food market. Thus, this report picks Shanghai as the main city of observation and arrives at the following conclusions ¡G 1. The Frozen Food Market in Shanghai will enjoy a promising 5% growth rate, a potential market for any new investors . 2. From observing the sales of dumplings and meat , one notices that frozen cooked food will enjoy a bigger market share because it meets the consumer¡¦s need of basic nutrition intake . 3. Sanitation and safety are two primary concerns on the consumer. Thus establishing a good brand image is vital to any company¡¦s success. Selling products through supermarket is also a crucial channel that vendors need to establish . 4. Due to the common use of microwave in the common household, microwavable frozen food not only provides variation but is also convenient for the consumer, thus raising its overall value. A majority of the consumer believe that microwavable frozen food can maintain a dish¡¦s original flavor while saving time. As this market is merely in its fledgling state, it is advised that all companies should pay attention to this market .

<p>The purpose of this thesis is to understand and analyse the issues of grey water generation and disposal in peri-urban areas of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania and to propose a suitable solution to which includes designing a treatment system for grey water (water from shower, washing and kitchen). The purification will eliminate the sanitation issues that are brought by exposing untreated grey water to the environment as well save freshwater. This will be implemented with regard to local conditions in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.</p><p>Water-borne and vector-borne diseases are mainly brought by untreated grey water, which sadly enough causes thousands of death cases every year in Tanzania. The year between 2004- 2005, 154551 cases of dysentery were reported with 170 deaths. It was also reported, 863488 cases of typhoid with 1167 deaths and last but not least 12923 cases of cholera from with 350 deaths. Deaths that were caused by diarrhoea were also reported, whereby, 90 % of them are children.</p><p>According to the interviews that were conducted, people would not want to recycle the grey water for example for washing due to socio-cultural context where water is considered dirty even after treatment. They had difficulties in believing that the same dirty grey water can be purified and reused again for various domestic activities.</p><p>The conducted characterisation of grey water showed the tested grey water has relatively high levels of BOD, basic pH, higher than average values of TSS, relatively low levels of DO, increased salinity and average level of FC. The analyses were performed on the most polluted grey water from every source. The volume of household produced grey water varies strongly, depending on socio-economic situation of the household and type of access to water supply. From estimation, the volume varies approximately between 60 -160 l/day and household for a low income household.</p><p>Living wall was proposed as grey water treatment system, because of its suitability to the peri-urban settlement and tropical climate. The system consists of concrete boxes placed over each other, filled with inner porous material and planted with plants. The system purifies grey water as it percolates through it and at the same time provides a vertical space for growing plants.</p><p>The plants for the treatment system were chosen to Typha latifolia and Scirpus species. The plants are growing in Tanzania and are being used for wastewater treatment purposes. The plants are tolerant to increased salinity and can grow in alkaline soil.</p><p>The cleaning effectiveness of the system was not tested, but only roughly estimated with help of values from a similar treatment system build in Gotland, Sweden.</p><p>Hence, the reuse of grey water in this geographical location suits best for irrigation in rural and peri-urban areas with potential for agriculture as well as groundwater recharge in the peri-urban and urban areas. Recharging groundwater with treated grey water has a potential to be observed as an indirect and long term reuse of the water as it reconnects in the hydrological cycle.</p>

Thesis (M.Sc.(Epidemiology))--University of Pretoria, 2003. / Also available online.

Thesis (M.P.A.)--University of Hong Kong, 2001. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 123-127).

In Bleak House , Dickens satirizes contemporary conditions in London in order to diagnose what he sees as social and industrial ills to prescribe a solution to the "Condition-of-England" question. Beginning with a review of the topicality in the novel, I use Dickens's personal letters, the text of Bleak House , and articles from Household Words to explain his contempt with the Great Exhibition, misguided philanthropy, and sanitary conditions, among others. Ultimately, it is his anathema to the Great Exhibition which drives both Dickens's plot and the issues he explores. Dickens's mockery of England is refracted and emphasized through his use of multiple genres. I seek to illuminate how the varieties of genres frame the plot trajectory as well as Dickens's subtle solution to London's problems. Using Michel Foucault's discussion of the discourse of discipline, I explain how Bleak House employs the Gothic novel, the Detective novel, and the Romance novel to influence the reader towards a more ordered and dutiful society. I end with an examination of the objects in the novel, concluding that objects symbolize not only characters' roles, but also their psyches.

Extreme hunger, malnutrition, and the lack of access to sanitation are among the most pressing development challenges, but the world is not on track to meet the targets that have been established by the Millennium Development Goals. The integration of wastewater treatment and food production systems allows for the recovery of resources from wastewater, and can provide an important solution to meet the sanitation needs of growing urban populations and provide periurban farmers with a consistent supply of water and nutrients. Stabilization ponds have been long considered to be an appropriate technology for wastewater reuse systems in developing countries, but advanced anaerobic treatment technologies, such as upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors, are also becoming common. The objective of this study is to evaluate the reuse potential of wastewater for irrigation from two community-managed treatment systems in Bolivia: one consisting of three stabilization ponds in series (three-pond system) and the other consisting of a UASB reactor and two stabilization ponds in series (UASB-pond system). Specifically, the removal of helminth eggs and thermotolerant coliform bacteria is measured in both systems and evaluated with respect to the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for the safe use of wastewater in agriculture, which are based on health targets. Results indicate that both systems provide good removal of conventional water quality parameters but poor removal of nutrients, discharging effluents with 37 to 54 mg/L of total nitrogen and 5.7 to 9.4 mg/L of total phosphorus. The three-pond system provided >92% removal of helminth eggs and 3.4-log removal of thermotolerant coliforms, and no geohelminth eggs were detected in the system effluents. However, Ascaris eggs were detected in the effluents of the UASB-pond system and the overall removal of thermotolerant coliforms was only 2.3 log units. Viability estimates based on the use of a vital stain indicate that eggs detected in pond effluents are less likely to be viable than eggs detected in the raw wastewater, in the sludge, or in the effluent of the UASB reactor. Sludge samples from the facultative pond in the three-pond system had higher concentrations of helminth eggs than sludge samples from the UASB reactor. Based on these results, the effluents from the three-pond system can be reused for irrigating any crop with the exception of root crops and low-growing crops that can be consumed raw (i.e. onions and strawberries). Effluents from the three-pond system may be used to irrigate salad crops or high-growing crops that are consumed raw, but additional public health interventions must be implemented throughout the food production process to meet WHO recommendations for protecting the health of farmers and consumers. The effluents from the UASB-pond system should not be reused unless improvements to the system increase its pathogen removal efficiency. The results from this study indicate that a system consisting of stabilization ponds in series may produce a higher quality effluent that is more suitable for wastewater irrigation than a system with a UASB reactor.

For decades the problems of access to and sustained use of water and sanitation (WATSAN) technologies in developing countries has dominated the political agendas of international organisations and governments. Despite the significant investments made and the apparent appropriateness of technologies transferred, the effective implementation and sustained use of WATSAN technologies remains a chimera. More importantly, improving access to water and sanitation does not necessarily guarantee the longevity of those systems transferred. Lessons from past interventions suggest that the success of WATSAN interventions depends on the ability of ensuring users‟ broad acceptance of the technologies and sustained used after donor assistance ends. Yet, in the academic literature users‟ feedback and experiences in the post-implementation stage of technologies has received scarce attention. Against this background, this thesis aims to contribute to understanding the dynamics involved in the process of WATSAN technology adoption and sustained use in developing countries by reporting the design and evaluation of a diagnostic post- implementation tool, called RECAP, to address and investigate the problem. This research employs a multiple case study approach to evaluate users‟ post-implementation experience of WATSAN technologies in South Africa and Indonesia. Semi-structured interviews with technology users as well as in depth interviews with local governments and health clinics were conducted in three case studies. By comparing and contrasting technology intended performance and users‟ experiences in the post-implementation stage this study aims to identify potential challenges to technology sustained used. Conclusions relate to the existence of discrepancies between performance and experience, manifested in the post-implementation stage, which suggest the necessity to develop evolving mechanisms to routinely assess users‟ feedbacks of the technologies and assist them with appropriate interventions. Further conclusions relate to the validity, reliability and flexibility of a post-implementation diagnostic tool in investigating user experiences, diagnosing emerging challenges and suggesting remedial intervention to contribute to sustained technology use.