New synthetic routes were designed and applied for novel bisperfluoroalkylated benzene derivatives: 2,5-bis(perfluorooctyl)benzene-1,4-dicarbaldehyde, its dimethylacetal and 2,5- bis(trifluoromethyl)benzene-1,4-diamine. Methods for purification of those derivatives were developed and used to obtain pure crystalline compounds. Crystals of the mentioned diamine and diacetal were obtained in quality suitable for RTG analysis while crystals of dialdehyde were of sufficient quality. New synthesis and purification protocol was designed for 2,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzene- 1,4-dialdehyde yielding sufficiently pure product, although isolated amounts are rather small ( yields about 20%) . 2,5-diiodobenzene-1,4-diamine was synthetised. It should be possible to prepare 2,5- bis(perfluorooktyl)benzene-1,4-diamine from this compound either by direct or indirect approach. Nevertheless, the syntheses were yet unsuccessful. A series of eight Schiff bases derived from 3,5-bistrifluoromethylated benzeneamine, benzylamine and benzaldehyde, and three reference bases based on thiophene-2-carbadehyde, benzaldehyde and phenylacetaldehyde was prepared. Kinetics of those species' formation in CDCl3 (all reactions run without catalyst) and THF (necessity of catalysis and susceptibility of equilibria to water) were studied. The...

There are numerous advantages of replacing traditional non-biodegradable synthetic plastics with bio-based plastics. Starch is globally available, cheap, renewable, and biodegradable. However, starch has a poor product performance and is relatively difficult to process, as conventional melt processing techniques cannot be used. By introducing thermoplastic properties to starch, the mechanical properties and processability can be enhanced. The aim of the project was to modify starch and give it thermoplastic properties. The implementation of this included various experiments, where aromatic, cyclic and aliphatic side groups were added to the biopolymer. The effect of the different side groups provided valuable insight into how the material properties changed. Subsequently, the thermoplastic properties of the modified starch were analyzed by different analytical methods, including Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). In conclusion, the TGA showed lower thermal stability in the functionalized starch compared to native starch. Some indications of thermoplastic behavior were observed from the DSC. Trade-off between functionality and thermostability needs to be overlooked when aiming to increase thermoplastic behavior and future work should explore TEMPO oxidation, to obtain better results from the TGA. / Det finns många fördelar med att ersätta traditionella, icke-biologiskt nedbrytbara syntetiska plaster med biobaserade plaster. Stärkelse är globalt tillgängligt, billigt, förnybart och nedbrytbart. I nuläget har stärkelse dock en bristande produktprestanda och är relativt svår att bearbeta eftersom konventionella smält bearbetningstekniker inte kan användas. Genom att ge stärkelse termoplastiska egenskaper kan man förbättra de mekaniska egenskaperna och bearbetbarheten. Syftet med projektet var därför att modifiera stärkelse och introducera termoplastiska egenskaper. Genomförandet av detta innefattade flera olika experiment där aromatiska, cykliska och alifatiska sidogrupper tillsattes till stärkelsen. Effekten av de olika sidogrupperna gav värdefull insikt i hur materialegenskaperna förändrades. Därefter analyserades de termoplastiska egenskaperna hos den modifierade stärkelsen med olika analytiska metoder, inklusive Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) och Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). Slutsatsen var att TGA visade en lägre termisk stabilitet hos den funktionaliserade stärkelsen jämfört med i den naturliga stärkelsen samt att vissa indikationer på termoplastiskt beteende observerades med hjälp av DSC analysen. En avvägning mellan funktionalitet och termisk stabilitet bör tas i beaktande i strävandet efter att öka termoplastiskt beteende. Framtida arbete inom ämnet rekommenderas att utforska TEMPO-oxidation för att uppnå bättre resultat från TGA.

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MnO2 continues to gain traction in the research and development of advanced supercapacitor materials due to its arsenal of advantages, such as high capacitance, low cost, natural abundance, and environmental benignity. However, its low conductivity has hindered its adoption into real-life applications. Compositing MnO2 with conductive additives has proved to be a promising route for the improvement of its power-energy characteristics. Four novel colloidal techniques were developed for the synthesis of MnO2-CNT composites with enhanced performance at high active mass loading. One strategy utilized a Schiff-based linkage of dispersants such as 3,4-Dihydroxybenzaldehyde (DHB) and Toluidine Blue O (TDB) to effectively mix and disperse MnO2 and CNT. Secondly, a co-dispersion technique was also investigated using Gallocyanine to improve dispersion and mixing of MnO2 and MWCNT. Third, a novel liquid-liquid extraction technique opened new avenues in agglomerate-free processing of individual components, which allowed enhanced electrode performance. Lastly, a morphology-modification strategy was also undertaken by synthesizing MnO2 nanorods with the use of advanced organic dispersants to control the aspect ratio and composite nanorods with MWCNT. The second major material investigated was polypyrrole (PPy), a polymer material with high conductivity, ease of synthesis, low-cost, and non-toxicity. However, its low cyclic stability was prevented it from being applied for real-world applications. Certain anionic and aromatic dopants have shown to improve the conductivity and cyclic stability. Therefore, one of the investigations in this work attempted to improve the performance of PPy-CNT composites by use of a novel anionic dopant, Sunset Yellow (SY). For all investigations electrodes with high mass loadings were produced to achieve high areal capacitance, thus ensuring the practicality of the techniques / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc) / Supercapacitors (SCs) and batteries are both electrochemical energy storage devices. While batteries excel at storing energy in high volumes, supercapacitors excel in charging (and discharging) at extremely high rates. It is desirable to obtain the best of both worlds in a single device; high energy volume and fast charging speeds. Although such a feat is not out of the realm of theoretical possibility, current projections forecast supercapacitors to compliment battery technologies instead of replacing them. Nonetheless, constant progression in the field of SCs is needed to sustain and proliferate their adoption into emerging markets. Therefore, the aim of this research was to assist in the endeavours to improve current SC technologies from a materials science standpoint.

Yes / The first use of a dinuclear UIII/UIII complex in the activation of small molecules is reported. The octadentate Schiff-base pyrrole, anthracene-hinged ‘Pacman’ ligand LA combines two strongly reducing UIII centres and three borohydride ligands in [M(THF)4][{U(BH4)}2(m-BH4)(LA)(THF)2] 1-M, (M ¼ Li, Na, K). The two borohydride ligands bound to uranium outside the macrocyclic cleft are readily substituted by aryloxide ligands, resulting in a single, weakly-bound, encapsulated endo group 1 metal borohydride bridging the two UIII centres in [{U(OAr)}2(m-MBH4)(LA)(THF)2] 2-M (OAr ¼ OC6H2tBu3-2,4,6, M ¼ Na, K). X-ray crystallographic analysis shows that, for 2-K, in addition to the endo-BH4 ligand the potassium countercation is also incorporated into the cleft through h5-interactions with the pyrrolides instead of extraneous donor solvent. As such, 2-K has a significantly higher solubility in non-polar solvents and a wider U–U separation compared to the ‘ate’ complex 1. The cooperative reducing capability of the two UIII centres now enforced by the large and relatively flexible macrocycle is compared for the two complexes, recognising that the borohydrides can provide additional reducing capability, and that the aryloxide-capped 2-K is constrained to reactions within the cleft. The reaction between 1-Na and S8 affords an insoluble, presumably polymeric paramagnetic complex with bridging uranium sulfides, while that with CS2 results in oxidation of each UIII to the notably high UV oxidation state, forming the unusual trithiocarbonate (CS3)2 as a ligand in [{U(CS3)}2(m-k2:k2-CS3)(LA)] (4). The reaction between 2-K and S8 results in quantitative substitution of the endo-KBH4 by a bridging persulfido (S2)2 group and oxidation of each UIII to UIV, yielding [{U(OAr)}2(m-k2:k2-S2)(LA)] (5). The reaction of 2-K with CS2 affords a thermally unstable adduct which is tentatively assigned as containing a carbon disulfido (CS2)2 ligand bridging the two U centres (6a), but only the mono-bridged sulfido (S)2 complex [{U(OAr)}2(m-S (LA)] (6) is isolated. The persulfido complex (5) can also be synthesised from the mono-bridged sulfido complex (6) by the addition of another equivalent of sulfur. / EPSRC, European COST network

Aufgrund ihrer Eigenschaften und möglicher Anwendungen werden Siliciumkomplexe mit O,N,O´-Ligandsystemen in der Literatur beschrieben. Jedoch fehlen bisher Untersuchungen zur Strukturaufklärung. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden zahlreiche Silicium-, Germanium- und Zinnkomplexe mit chiralen O,N,O´-Liganden synthetisiert und strukturanalytisch charakterisiert. Dazu wurden die Liganden durch Kondensationsreaktionen von enantiomerenreinen Aminosäuren mit aromatischen ortho-Hydroxyaldehyden bzw. Acetylaceton hergestellt. Die weitere Umsetzung der Liganden mit Elementhalogeniden der Gruppe 14 führte zu den angestrebten Komplexverbindungen. Alle hergestellten Verbindungen wurden umfassend charakterisiert (NMR-, UV/Vis-, IR-Spektroskopie, Elementaranalyse, Einkristallstrukturanalyse, Drehwert). Quantenchemische Berechnungen an einfachen Modellverbindungen sowie an hergestellten Silicium- und Zinnkomplexen führten zu einem grundlegenden Verständnis der Festkörper-NMR-Parameter dieser Verbindungsklasse.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Please refer to full text for abstract / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Sien volteks vir opsomming

This dissertation investigates the origins of tunable and efficient photochemistry in three different photoactive proteins, bacteriorhodopsin (BR), rhodopsin (RHO) and green fluorescent protein (GFP). In all cases, significant differences exist between the photoreactivity of model chromophores in solution and in the protein environment, in terms of excited state lifetime and efficiency of the primary photochemical process (opsin proteins) or the type of reaction (excited state proton transfer versus C=C double bond photoisomerisation for GFP). The work presented here investigates for each case to what extent the protein environment is necessary to alter the photochemistry of model chromophores in solution. For GFP and BR steric and electrostatic interactions between the protein pocket and the chromophore are shown to be likely responsible for shaping the excited state surface along which the photoreactions take place. For RHO it is suggested, contrary to current belief, that selection of a reactive ground state conformer might be the main effect generating the observed differences between solution and protein environment. The solution photochemistry of structurally modified retinal protonated Schiff bases, taken as model chromophores for the opsin proteins, is studied with continuous wave irradiation experiments and ultrafast transient spectroscopies. Surprisingly large differences are observed for the isomerisation reaction depending on the starting configuration (trans or cis) of the photoactive double bond. The current model for BR based on the tuning of the excited state barrier encountered along the isomerisation coordinate is expanded to include the changes in selectivity, speed and efficiency observed for a series of all-trans derivatives. For 11-cis, the photoisomerisation in solution is proposed to take place along a barrierless isomerisation coordinate, in contrast with the models currently available in literature. It is suggested that the protein might be discriminating between ground state conformers rather than significantly changing the topography of the reaction coordinate. For GFP, excited state Raman spectra are recorded for the wild-type protein, two mutants and a model chromophore in solution. It is suggested that the high frequency vibrational modes observed in the excited state spectra of the proteins but not of the model chromophore in DMSO are a sign of a tighter chromophore environment that inhibits the photoisomerisation reaction occurring in solution.

This work is concerned with the design and synthesis of the cheap, late first row transition metal complexes of Schiff base ligand systems. The prepared complexes readily afford systematic variation in order to probe potency and understand the role of metal, chelating ligands and anionic ligands when carrying out their cytotoxic effect. This study has lead to a better understanding of the action of these classes of complex and will be used to direct the design of new anti-cancer metallopharmaceuticals going forward. This thesis details the synthesis of a library of Schiff base macroacyclic ligands and their novel late first row transition metal complexes with varying anionic counterparts. The creation of a library with several degrees of variability provides a wide array of parameters to afford subtle variation in structure and chemistry e.g. denticity, co-ordination mode, chelate hole size, metal centred redox potentials, hydrolysis rates, co-ordinative saturation, lipophilicity, solubility and more. Complexation of the ligands was carried out by the free ligand and a novel macroacyclic metal template approach using the cheap late first row transition metal salts of Cobalt (II), Nickel (II), Copper (II) and Zinc (II) plus one Ru (III) complex. Structural studies of the 80 generated complexes was carried out by vibrational spectroscopy, elemental analysis, mass spectrometry, magnetic susceptibility and NMR. Single crystal X-ray structures have been determined with 20 reported in this thesis. All ligands act as tridentate ligands in all except one case to form monomeric distorted trigonal-bipyramidal, square-pyramidal or octahedral structures. In the case of zinc nitrate, the ligand L2PhMe acts as a tetradentate ligand to give a distorted octahedral structure. Paramagnetic NMR and solution magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic complexes was achieved by the Evans NMR method and analysis of the solution NMR showed that L2R and L3R ligands display 2-fold symmetry and are likely either tetradentate in solution or a fast exchange between imine N-donar sites is occurring even down to -65°C. The majority of the resulting complexes of L1R were screened against a panel of three cancer cell lines. Several categories of complex were able to afford structure activity relationships. It was discovered that the ligand is indeed essential for activity of the metal salts against the panel of cell lines and it was largely discovered that the variation in 'tail group' and anionic coordinating ligands played little role in providing a dramatic variation in activity of the metal salt. In general all L1R complexes displayed moderate cytotoxicity showing a trend in activity with respect to the metal in the order RuIII≈CoII>CuII≈ZnII>NiII, over a 6 day exposure to the three cell panel RuIII was shown to be the most potent metal of the L1R series providing IC50 values of 4.6 (0.7) and 7.5 (1.2) μM against the DLD-1 and H460 cell lines respectively, which is Ca. 4.6 and 15 times less potent than cisplatin to the same cell panel respectively. RuIII was also discovered to be the only metal to provide an IC50 value from a 1 hour exposure to the DLD-1 cell panel. The value of 20.4 (3.5) μM is a moderate figure but again Ca. 10 fold less potent than cisplatin for the same test. The L2R and L3R complexes could not be screened by the same comprehension due to their low solubilities. However the lone screen that was possible from the very sparingly soluble complex [CuCl2(L3Bui)] gave the most exciting result and most potent complex of this thesis. After a 6 day exposure, [CuCl2(L3Bui)] gave IC50 values of 4.3 (0.1) and 2.9 (0.1) μM against the DLD-1 and H460 cell lines respectively. These values are merely 4 and 6 fold more than Cisplatin to the same cell lines respectively and demonstrates the potential of this class of complex as cytostatic agents. Further studies utilising a semi-quantitative DNA damaging assay, demonstrated that all first row complexes can damage DNA when in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, with the exception of ZnII complexes. CoII appeared to afford the greatest DNA damage with the most intsense bands for double strand breaks and the CuII complex of the ligand L3Bui also demonstrated a greater DNA damage as opposed to its L1Bui analogue.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo a síntese e a caracterização de bases de Schiff biopoliméricas e alguns de seus complexos metálicos formados a partir do biopolímero quitosana. Na primeira etapa do trabalho foram utilizados o salicilaldeído e seus derivados, 5-metóxisalicilaldeído e 5-nitrosalicilaldeído para produzir as bases de Schiff biopoliméricas com a quitosana (GD = 90,4 %, Mw =223 kDa), as quais foram utilizadas para a síntese dos complexos de Zn(II), Pd(II) e Pt(II). Na segunda etapa, bases de Schiff biopoliméricas anfifílicas foram sintetizadas utilizando as quitosanas (GD = 90,4 e 89%, Mw = 223 e 64 kDa), e o grupo hidrofóbico salicilaldeído bem como o grupo hidrofílico 2,3-epóxi-1-propanol (glicidol). E esses ligantes também foram utilizados para complexar os metais Zn(II), Pd(II) e Pt(II). As bases de Schiff biopoliméricas anfifílicas foram sintetizadas a fim de se avaliar o efeito da presença do grupo hidrofílico glicidol e também o da variação dos valores de Mw nas propriedades físico-químicas e biológicas. Todos os compostos sintetizados foram caracterizados por espectroscopia (1H-RMN, FTIR, DRX, UV-Vis), análise térmica (TG/DTG-DTA) e microscopia (MEV-EDX). Afim de se avaliar a atividade biológica das bases de Schiff biopoliméricas e seus complexos foram utilizados dois agentes patógenos de plantas: a bactéria Gram-negativa Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato e o fungo de cerais Fusarium graminearum. Os resultados obtidos demostraram que tanto as bases de Schiff biopoliméricas quanto seus complexos exibiram atividade antibacteriana significante.  Entretanto, o potencial antifúngico das bases de Schiff foi melhor que para alguns complexos, devido a diferença morfológica relacionada a constituição da membrana celular externa e da parede celular dos microrganismos testados. Portanto, foi observado que a morfologia é um fator diretamente relacionado aos mecanismos de ação. A avaliação da citotoxicidade foi realizada in vitro contra células de carcinoma de mama MCF-7 por ensaio de MTT. Os resultados de citotoxicidade obtidos demonstraram que todos os compostos apresentaram uma diminuição na percentagem da viabilidade celular, em função da concentração. Observou-se para as bases de Schiff biopoliméricas uma atividade antitumoral mais efetiva que para as quitosanas sem modificação. Em baixas concentrações dos complexos, observou-se uma baixa inibição celular, especialmente para os complexos de zinco. Porém, em concentrações mais elevadas, foi verificado um aumento significativo da toxicidade. Portanto, a principal contribuição esperada deste trabalho foi a síntese, caracterização e estudo desses novos compostos de bases de Schiff biopoliméricas e dos biocomplexos, com potencial para atuar em aplicações biológicas. / Biopolymeric Schiff bases prepared from chitosan and some of their complexes were synthesized, characterized and evaluated regarding their biological activity. In a first step, salicylaldehyde, 5-methoxysalicylaldehyde and 5-nitrosalicylaldehyde were used to synthesize biopolymeric Schiff bases with chitosan (GD = 90.4 %, Mw =223 kDa), as well as their Zn(II), Pd(II) and Pt(II) complexes. In a second stage, amphiphilic biopolymeric Schiff bases were prepared from two different chitosans (GD = 90.4 and 89%, Mw = 223 e 64 kDa), but introducing the salicylaldehyde hydrophobic group and also 2,3-epoxy-1-propanol (glycidol) hydrophilic group. Zn(II), Pd(II) and Pt(II) complexes where prepared from such amphiphilic biopolimeric ligands. All these ligands and respective complexes were obtained in order to evaluate the effect of increased solubility caused by glycidol the hydrophilic group and as well as the different Mw values in physical chemical and biological properties. Thus different spectroscopic (1H-NMR, FTIR, XRD, UV-Vis), thermal analytical (TG/DTG-DTA) and microscopy (MEV-EDX) techniques were used to characterize all the compounds. The biological activity was evaluated against two economically important plant pathogens, Gram-negative bacteria Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato and Fusarium graminearum cereal fungus. In general, the results demonstrated that biopolymer Schiff bases and their complexes exhibited significant antibacterial activity. However, the antifungal potential of the Schiff bases was better than for some complexes, due to the morphological difference related to the constitution of the cell membrane and cell wall of the tested microorganisms. Therefore, it was observed that morphology is a factor directly related to the mechanisms of action. Cytotoxicity was evaluated in vitro against breast cancer cells (MCF-7) using MTT. The results of cytotoxicity against MCF-7 cells demonstrated a decrease in the cell viability as a function of the concentration, for all the samples tested, being the biopolymeric Schiff bases were more effective antitumor agent than chitosan itself. In lower concentration, the complexes did not show effective decrease on cells viability, especially for zinc complexes. However, at high concentrations a significant increase of cytotoxicity was observed. Therefore, the main contribution expected these work was the synthesis, characterization and biological activity evaluation of these new biopolymeric Schiff bases and complexes, aiming to evaluate the antimicrobial and antitumor activity.