In this thesis, we report the observations of optical squeezing from second harmonic generation (SHG), optical parametric oscillation (OPO) and optical parametric amplification (OPA). Demonstrations and proposals of applications involving the squeezed light and electro-optic control loops are presented. ¶ In our SHG setup, we report the observation of 2.1 dB of intensity squeezing on the second harmonic (SH) output. Investigations into the system show that the squeezing performance of a SHG system is critically affected by the pump noise and a modular theory of noise propagation is developed to describe and quantify this effect. Our experimental data has also shown that in a low-loss SHG system, intra-cavity nondegenerate OPO modes can simultaneously occur. This competition of nonlinear processes leads to the optical clamping of the SH output power and in general can degrade the SH squeezing. We model this competition and show that it imposes a limit to the observable SH squeezing. Proposals for minimizing the effect of competition are presented. ¶ In our OPO setup, we report the observation of 7.1 dB of vacuum squeezing and more than 4 dB of intensity squeezing when the OPO is operating as a parametric amplifier. We present the design criteria and discuss the limits to the observable squeezing from the OPO.We attribute the large amount of squeezing obtained in our experiment to the high escape efficiency of the OPO. The effect of phase jitter on the squeezing of the vacuum state is modeled. ¶ The quantum noise performance of an electro-optic feedforward control loop is investigated. With classical coherent inputs, we demonstrate that vacuum fluctuations introduced at the beam splitter of the control loop can be completely cancelled by an optimum amount of positive feedforward. The cancellation of vacuum fluctuations leads to the possibility of noiseless signal amplification with the feedforward loop. Comparison shows that the feedforward amplifier is superior or at least comparable in performance with other noiseless amplification schemes. When combined with an injection-locked non-planar ring Nd:YAG laser, we demonstrate that signal and power amplifications can both be noiseless and independently variable. ¶ Using squeezed inputs to the feedforward control loop, we demonstrate that information carrying squeezed states can be made robust to large downstream transmission losses via a noiseless signal amplification. We show that the combination of a squeezed vacuum meter input and a feedforward loop is a quantum nondemolition (QND) device, with the feedforward loop providing an additional improvement on the transfer of signal. In general, the use of a squeezed vacuum meter input and an electro-optic feedforward loop can provide pre- and post- enhancements to many existing QND schemes. ¶ Finally, we proposed that the quantum teleportation of a continuous-wave optical state can be achieved using a pair of phase and amplitude electro-optic feedforward loops with two orthogonal quadrature squeezed inputs. The signal transfer and quantum correlation of the teleported optical state are analysed. We show that a two dimensional diagram, similar to the QND figures of merits, can be used to quantify the performance of a teleporter.

This thesis deals with the fabrication and the characterization of periodically-poled crystals for use in lasers to generate visible and UV radiation by second-harmonic generation (SHG) through quasi-phasematching (QPM). Such lasers are of practical importance in many applications like high-density optical storage, biomedical instrumentation, colour printing, and for laser displays. The main goals of this work were: (1) to develop effective monitoring methods for poling of crystals from the KTiOPO4 (KTP) family, (2) to develop useful non-destructive domain characterization techniques, (3) to try to find alternative crystals to KTP for easier, periodic poling, (4) to investigate the physical mechanisms responsible for optical damage in KTP. The work shows that the in-situ SHG technique used together with electro-optic monitoring, makes it possible to obtain reliable, real-time information regarding the poling quality over the whole crystal aperture during the electric-field poling process. Using this combined monitoring method, both KTP and Rb-doped KTP (RKTP) crystals were successfully poled. By comparing these two crystals, we found that a low-doped KTP has a substantially reduced ionic conductivity and, thus, a high-quality periodic poling can be obtained without otherwise affecting the properties of the crystal. RKTP is a good alternative candidate to KTP for poling purpose. We have also shown that Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) is an informative tool for investigating domain nucleation, growth, and merging. Furthermore, we have demonstrated a simple technique for 3D characterization of QPM samples. It utilizes a group-velocity mismatched, type-II SHG of femtosecond pulses for layer-by-layer monitoring of the effective nonlinearity along the propagation direction of the beam. The quality of these crystals was finally reflected in a number of SHG experiments with a variety of laser sources. High energies and high efficiencies were thus demonstrated using CW, mode-locked and Q-switched lasers. Gratings with pitches smaller than 3 µm, were demonstrated for first-order UV generation. Type-II QPM SHG was demonstrated as a technique for reducing the fabrication constraints. High intensity light in the visible and the UV leads to modification of the material properties and, eventually, to optical damage. In KTP and its isomorphs, the first sign of material change is an optically-induced absorption. We have used thermal-lens spectroscopy with a common-path interferometer for high-sensitivity measurements of green light-induced infrared absorption dynamics in single-domain and periodically-poled KTP (PPKTP). The saturated, green light-induced absorption has been shown to be consistently higher in periodically-poled crystals, and is attributed to the creation of stoichiometric and interstitial defects in the crystals during the poling process. Finally, irreversible bulk damage thresholds in PPKTP have been determined for pulsed frequency converters. As the characteristics of optical damage are closely related to the material quality, this investigation can provide useful information for crystal manufactures and will help to optimise the crystal growth conditions.

Optical parametric oscillators (OPOs) and optical parametricamplifiers (OPAs) constitute a class of optical frequencyconverting devices that have many possible applications, e.g.in range finding, molecular spectroscopy and medicine. They canconvert the frequency of the incident pump field with highefficiency, and generate two waves at new frequencies that willbe continuously tuneable over a wide spectral range. Virtuallyany wavelengths within the transparency region of the nonlinearmaterial can be generated if the material can bequasi-phasematched (QPM). In addition, QPM gives thepossibility to utilise the largest nonlinear tensor element ofthe material and allows walk-off free interaction between thewaves. The aims of this thesis have been to investigate thepossibility to use QPM KTiOPO4crystals as nonlinear material in nanosecond OPOsand OPAs operating at room-temperature, and to explore theadvantages and shortcomings of these devices. The technique ofelectric field poling has been employed to implement the QPMstructure in flux grown KTiOPO4(KTP). The main conclusion is that periodically poled KTP (PPKTP)is a suitable material to use in nanosecond OPOs and OPAs. Thematerial properties that foremost make KTP into an attractivenonlinear material are: The large value of the nonlinearcoefficient d33, the high resistance to optically inducedbreakdown, the low susceptibility to grey-track formation, theinsensitivity to the photorefractive effect, the widetransparency and the low coercive field. The thesis shows that it is possible to pole large volumesof KTP with a high quality of the QPM structure. Highlyefficient nanosecond OPOs have been constructed during thisproject. Maximum conversion efficiencies have reached 45 % inthe case of a singly resonant OPO (SRO) built around a 3 mmthick PPKTP crystal. Total pulse energies for both the signal(1.72 µm) and the idler (2.8 µm) of up to 18 mJ wasreached and an average output power of 2 W was obtained forthis sample. However, up to 24 W was produced in a doublyresonant OPO operating close to degeneracy. The efficiencyreached 48 % for that case. Truly continuous and very widespectral tuning has also been demonstrated, as well as a narrowbandwidth OPO operating on one single longitudinal mode. <b>Keywords:</b>optical parametric oscillators, opticalparametric amplifiers, quasi-phasematching, KTiOPO4, nonlinear optics, frequency conversion, periodicelectric field poling, ferroelectrics, high-order secondharmonic generation, electro-optic effect.

Ferroelectric crystals are commonly used in nonlinear optics for frequency conversion of laser radiation. The quasi-phase matching (QPM) approach uses a periodically modulated nonlinearity that can be achieved by periodically inverting domains in ferroelectric crystals and allows versatile and efficient frequency conversion in the whole transparency region of the material. KTiOPO4 (KTP) is one of the most attractive ferroelectric non-linear optical material for periodic domain-inversion engineering due to its excellent non-linearity, high resistance for photorefractive damage, and its relatively low coercive field. A periodic structure of reversed domains can be created in the crystal by lithographic patterning with subsequent electric field poling. The performance of the periodically poled KTP crystals (PPKTP) as frequency converters rely directly upon the poling quality. Therefore, characterization methods that lead to a deeper understanding of the polarization switching process are of utmost importance. In this work, several techniques have been used and developed to study domain structure in KTP, both in-situ and ex-situ. The results obtained have been utilized to characterize different aspects of the polarization switching processes in KTP, both for patterned and unpatterned samples. It has also been demonstrated that it is possible to fabricate sub-micrometer (sub-μm) PPKTP for novel optical devices. Lithographic processes based on e-beam lithography and deep UV-laser lithography have been developed and proven useful to pattern sub- μm pitches, where the later has been the most convenient method. A poling method based on a periodical modulation of the K-stoichiometry has been developed, and it has resulted in a sub-μm domain grating with a period of 720 nm for a 1 mm thick KTP crystal. To the best of our knowledge, this is the largest domain aspect-ratio achieved for a bulk ferroelectric crystal. The sub-micrometer PPKTP samples have been used for demonstration of 6:th and 7:th QPM order backward second-harmonic generation with continuous wave laser excitation, as well as a demonstration of narrow wavelength electrically-adjustable Bragg reflectivity. / QC 20100930

This research deals with the second harmonic generation of Lamb waves in nonlinear elastic, homogeneous, isotropic plates. These waves find current applications in the field of ultrasonic, nondestructive testing and evaluation of materials. The second harmonic Lamb wave generation is investigated analytically in order to provide information on suitable excitation modes maximizing the second harmonic amplitude. Using an existing solution for the problem of second harmonic generation in wave guides, the solution is explained for the plate and examined as to the symmetry properties of the second harmonic wave, since published results are contradictory. It is shown that the cross-modal generation of a symmetric secondary mode by an antisymmetric primary mode is possible. Modes showing internal resonance, whose conditions are nonzero power flux from the primary wave and phase velocity matching, are shown to be most useful for measurements. In addition, group velocity matching is required. A material-independent analysis of the linear Lamb mode theory provides mode types satisfying all three requirements. Using the example of an aluminum plate, the found internally resonant modes are evaluated with regard to the rate of second harmonic generation and practical issues such as excitability and ease of measurement. Pros and cons of each mode type are presented.

In recent years, coinage metal nanoparticles have emerged as materials with largest quadratic optical nonlinearity. Their first hyperpolarizabilities (β) are very high (105-106 x 10-30 esu) but such large values were quite unexpected because of their apparently centrosymmetric bulk structure. Only a small second harmonic generation (SHG) from coinage metal nanoparticles is expected through higher order multipolar (e.g., quadrupolar) polarization mechanisms. Various possible reasons have been attributed to the observation of large β values in coinage metal nanoparticles. They are: 1) Particles may not be overall centrosymmetric (as appears from the TEM pictures) which, in turn, can make SHG electric dipole allowed, 2) Several polarization mechanisms (dipolar, quadrupolar, retardation, etc.) may be operating simultaneously to render SHG very efficient, 3) SHG can be resonance enhanced if the incident or SH photons fall within the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) absorption bands or higher energy interband transitions in the metal particles, and 4) Surface capping agents used for stabilization of the nanoparticles in solution alter the SH response. It is, therefore, important to experimentally find out which of the above mentioned possibilities are dominant and under what conditions we can identify the contribution of various mechanisms to the overall SHG response of the coinage metal nanoparticles. In this thesis work, the origin of SHG from copper (one of the coinage metals) nanoparticles has been investigated using hyper-Rayleigh scattering (HRS). In chapter 1, an introduction to metal nanoparticles and their optical properties have been presented. A general introduction to second order nonlinear optics and various methods for the determination of first hyperpolarizability are provided. A literature survey on the second order NLO properties of metal nanoparticles is also done. At the end of the chapter, the motivation of the work done is outlined. In chapter 2, the experimental set-ups for unpolarized and polarization resolved hyper-Rayleigh scattering (HRS) measurements at different wavelengths are described. Generation of IR wavelength of 1543 and 1907 nm using stimulated Raman scattering in gases have been presented in this chapter. In chapter 3, synthesis and characterization of copper nanoparticles are described. Four different size copper nanoparticles (5, 9, 25, and 55 nm) were prepared by laser ablation. Size dependencies of first hyperpolarizability were investigated at different wavelengths and it was found that β increases with increasing size of the particle and that the SHG originates mainly from the surface of the particle. Dispersion in first hyperpolarizabilities of the copper nanoparticles has also been investigated and we find that at incident and SH wavelengths far from the SPR absorption band, the hyperpolarizability is large compared to molecular hyperpolarizabilities. In chapter 4, the results of polarization resolved HRS measurements on copper nanoparticles of five different sizes at four different wavelengths (738, 1064, 1543 and 1907 nm) are reported. Polarization analyses show that at small particle size to wavelength (d/λ) ratio the dipolar contribution to SHG is dominant whereas the quadrupolar and retardation effects become important at larger d/λ values. The “small particle limit” in the SHG from coinage metal nanoparticles has been assessed based on our results on copper and others’ results on silver and gold nanoparticles. In chapter 5, the effect of surface capping on the first hyperpolarizability of copper nanoparticles is investigated. Polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) has been used as a capping agent. The results obtained for bare and capped copper nanoparticles show that capping enhances the hyperpolarizability by a factor of 2. In the last chapter 6, general conclusions drawn on SHG from coinage metal nanoparticles based on this work are presented along with future perspectives.

<p>Optical parametric oscillators (OPOs) and optical parametricamplifiers (OPAs) constitute a class of optical frequencyconverting devices that have many possible applications, e.g.in range finding, molecular spectroscopy and medicine. They canconvert the frequency of the incident pump field with highefficiency, and generate two waves at new frequencies that willbe continuously tuneable over a wide spectral range. Virtuallyany wavelengths within the transparency region of the nonlinearmaterial can be generated if the material can bequasi-phasematched (QPM). In addition, QPM gives thepossibility to utilise the largest nonlinear tensor element ofthe material and allows walk-off free interaction between thewaves.</p><p>The aims of this thesis have been to investigate thepossibility to use QPM KTiOPO₄crystals as nonlinear material in nanosecond OPOsand OPAs operating at room-temperature, and to explore theadvantages and shortcomings of these devices. The technique ofelectric field poling has been employed to implement the QPMstructure in flux grown KTiOPO₄(KTP).</p><p>The main conclusion is that periodically poled KTP (PPKTP)is a suitable material to use in nanosecond OPOs and OPAs. Thematerial properties that foremost make KTP into an attractivenonlinear material are: The large value of the nonlinearcoefficient d₃₃, the high resistance to optically inducedbreakdown, the low susceptibility to grey-track formation, theinsensitivity to the photorefractive effect, the widetransparency and the low coercive field.</p><p>The thesis shows that it is possible to pole large volumesof KTP with a high quality of the QPM structure. Highlyefficient nanosecond OPOs have been constructed during thisproject. Maximum conversion efficiencies have reached 45 % inthe case of a singly resonant OPO (SRO) built around a 3 mmthick PPKTP crystal. Total pulse energies for both the signal(1.72 µm) and the idler (2.8 µm) of up to 18 mJ wasreached and an average output power of 2 W was obtained forthis sample. However, up to 24 W was produced in a doublyresonant OPO operating close to degeneracy. The efficiencyreached 48 % for that case. Truly continuous and very widespectral tuning has also been demonstrated, as well as a narrowbandwidth OPO operating on one single longitudinal mode.</p><p><b>Keywords:</b>optical parametric oscillators, opticalparametric amplifiers, quasi-phasematching, KTiOPO₄, nonlinear optics, frequency conversion, periodicelectric field poling, ferroelectrics, high-order secondharmonic generation, electro-optic effect.</p>

<p>This thesis deals with the fabrication and the characterization of periodically-poled crystals for use in lasers to generate visible and UV radiation by second-harmonic generation (SHG) through quasi-phasematching (QPM). Such lasers are of practical importance in many applications like high-density optical storage, biomedical instrumentation, colour printing, and for laser displays.</p><p>The main goals of this work were: (1) to develop effective monitoring methods for poling of crystals from the KTiOPO₄ (KTP) family, (2) to develop useful non-destructive domain characterization techniques, (3) to try to find alternative crystals to KTP for easier, periodic poling, (4) to investigate the physical mechanisms responsible for optical damage in KTP. The work shows that the in-situ SHG technique used together with electro-optic monitoring, makes it possible to obtain reliable, real-time information regarding the poling quality over the whole crystal aperture during the electric-field poling process. Using this combined monitoring method, both KTP and Rb-doped KTP (RKTP) crystals were successfully poled. By comparing these two crystals, we found that a low-doped KTP has a substantially reduced ionic conductivity and, thus, a high-quality periodic poling can be obtained without otherwise affecting the properties of the crystal. RKTP is a good alternative candidate to KTP for poling purpose. We have also shown that Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) is an informative tool for investigating domain nucleation, growth, and merging. Furthermore, we have demonstrated a simple technique for 3D characterization of QPM samples. It utilizes a group-velocity mismatched, type-II SHG of femtosecond pulses for layer-by-layer monitoring of the effective nonlinearity along the propagation direction of the beam. The quality of these crystals was finally reflected in a number of SHG experiments with a variety of laser sources. High energies and high efficiencies were thus demonstrated using CW, mode-locked and Q-switched lasers. Gratings with pitches smaller than 3 µm, were demonstrated for first-order UV generation. Type-II QPM SHG was demonstrated as a technique for reducing the fabrication constraints.</p><p>High intensity light in the visible and the UV leads to modification of the material properties and, eventually, to optical damage. In KTP and its isomorphs, the first sign of material change is an optically-induced absorption. We have used thermal-lens spectroscopy with a common-path interferometer for high-sensitivity measurements of green light-induced infrared absorption dynamics in single-domain and periodically-poled KTP (PPKTP). The saturated, green light-induced absorption has been shown to be consistently higher in periodically-poled crystals, and is attributed to the creation of stoichiometric and interstitial defects in the crystals during the poling process. Finally, irreversible bulk damage thresholds in PPKTP have been determined for pulsed frequency converters. As the characteristics of optical damage are closely related to the material quality, this investigation can provide useful information for crystal manufactures and will help to optimise the crystal growth conditions.</p>

Wavelength-tunable optical response from solid-state optoelectronic devices is a desired feature for a variety of applications such as spectroscopy, laser emission tuning, and telecommunications. Nonlinear optical response, on the other hand, has an important role in modern photonic functionalities, including efficient frequency conversions, all-optical signal processing, and ultrafast switching. This study presents the development of optical devices with wavelength tunable or nonlinear optical functionality based on plasmonic effects. For the first part of this study, widely wavelength tunable optical bandpass filters based on the unique properties of long-range surface plasmon polaritons (LR SPP) are presented. Planar metal stripe waveguides surrounded by two different cladding layers that have dissimilar refractive index dispersions were used to develop a wide wavelength tuning. The concept was demonstrated using a set of index-matching fluids and over 200nm of wavelength tuning was achieved with only 0.004 of index variation. For practical application of the proposed concept, a thermo-optic polymer was used to develop a widely tunable thermo-optic bandpass filter and over 220 nm of wavelength tuning was achieved with only 8 ºC of temperature variation. Another novel approach to produce a widely wavelength tunable optical response for free-space optical applications involves integrating plasmonic metasurfaces with quantum-electronic engineered semiconductor layers for giant electro-optic effect, which is proposed and experimentally demonstrated in the second part of this study. Coupling of surface plasmon modes formed by plasmonic nanoresonators with Stark tunable intersubband transitions in multi-quantum well structures induced by applying bias voltages through the semiconductor layer was used to develop tunable spectral responses in the mid-infrared range. Experimentally, over 310 nm of spectral peak tuning around 7 μm of wavelength with 10 ns response time was achieved. As the final part of this study, highly nonlinear metasurfaces based on coupling of electromagnetically engineered plasmonic nanoresonators with quantum-engineered intersubband nonlinearities are proposed and experimentally demonstrated. In the proof-of-concept demonstration, an effective nonlinear susceptibility over 50 nm/V was measured and, after further optimization, over 480 nm/V was measured for second harmonic generation under normal incidence. The proposed concept shows that it is possible to engineer virtually any element of the nonlinear susceptibility tensor of the nonlinear metasurface. / text

Nonlinear optics is well known to be a highly powerful tool to investigate the properties of the materials. In this thesis we used two important nonlinear optical techniques known as Electric Field Induced Second Harmonic Generation (EFISH) and Harmonic Light Scattering (HLS) to study the first hyperpolarizability of various molecular objects. Firstly, we evidenced the pi donor conjugation in cyclometallated Ir complexes. We have also explored the series of trinuclear organometallic triaryl-1, 3, 5-triazinane-2, 4, 6-triones functionalized by d6-transition metal acetylides complexes at their periphery- large hyperpolarizabilities, far higher than those of related purely organic derivatives are reported. Secondly, a series of dipolar and octupolar dithienylethene (DTE)-containing 2, 2-bipyridine ligands with different metal ions featuring two, four and six photochromic dithienylethene units have been synthesized and fully characterized. The study reveals a large increase in the hyperpolarizability after UV irradiation and subsequent formation of ring-closed isomers. This efficient enhancement clearly reflects the delocalization of the pi-electron system and the formation of strong push&pull chromophores in the closed forms. Thirdly, we have investigated NLO properties of bis (phthalocyaninato) lanthanide-(III) double-decker complexes with crosswise ABAB (phthalocyanine bearing alternating electron-donor and electron-acceptor groups), AB3 (3 donor groups), A4 (4 donor groups) and B4 (no donor groups) ligands. First-order hyperpolarizability is measured and displays the highest quadratic hyperpolarizability ever reported for an octupolar molecule. The direct contribution of f-electrons in coordinated lanthanides ions is also observed on second order nonlinear activity. Finally, gold nanospheres (AuNSs) and gold nanorods (AuNRs) with different aspect ratios (AR) ranging from 1.7 to 3.2 nm have been synthesized by Radiolysis method. Second harmonic intensity collected from AuNRs is clearly higher than that of the nanospheres and reveals their dependence on the AR. We have also mixed the chromophore 4-dimethylamino-N-methyl-4-stilbazolium tosylate (DAST) derivative with AuNRs and observed the enhancement of DAST NLO properties in the presence of AuNRs. A clear increase in the hyperpolarizability (by a factor of 8) of DAST derivatives has been evidence.