The role of self-conscious emotions of shame and guilt on depression is ambiguous, while studies simultaneously investigating shame and guilt suggest that both emotions have strong unique effects on depression, it is however not yet clear which psychological processes cause shame and / or guilt to be related to depression. This study tested the hypothesis that shame but not guilt will be associated with depression, and that this relationship will be fully mediated by self-esteem and rumination. A sample of 246 university students (mean age = 20.39 years; SD = 1.89), completed a survey questionnaire with measures of shame, guilt, self-esteem, rumination and depression. Path analysis was used to analyse the data. The results indicated that shame but not guilt had a strong unique effect on depression, and that self-esteem and rumination fully mediated this relationship. However, guilt had a significant but weaker relationship with depression, and self-esteem and rumination did not mediate the relationship. Recommendations for future research and limitations of this study are also presented. / Mini Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2017. / Psychology / MA / Unrestricted

Submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Applied Master of Arts (MA) Clinical Psychology in the Department of Psychology Faculty of Arts at the University of Zululand, 1996. / In recent years, the rate of unemployment in South Africa has been steadily increasing. In 1990, it was 28 %. This percentage excluded the TBVC states and employment in subsistence agriculture which is characterised by a cyclical form of employment. In 1993 and 1994, a number of industries closed and retrenchment took place in some companies as a rationalisation strategy. This resulted in retrenchment of more than 50 000 workers excluding more than 21 000 retrenched before January 1993. The level of unemployment among Blacks is six times higher than that of whites which is 6.4 % according to the South African Living Standard and Development (Democracy in Action, 1996). In general, more women are unemployed than men. Unemployment has been linked to a number of negative psychological consequences and physical health effects including loss of self-esteem, severe depression, loss of social status, alcohol abuse, suicide, minor psychiatric morbidity and the probability of being identified as a psychiatric patient or a client. In this study the researcher focuses on unemployment and its psychological correlates: depression and low self-esteem. The aims of the study were to determine the existence of any statistically significant relationships between unemployment, depression and low self-esteem and to determine whether depression and low self-esteem are significantly related to such personal variables as age, gender, duration of unemployment and marital status. The researcher administered the questionnaires to unemployed respondents seeking employment in Unemployment Insurance Fund Offices in Johannesburg and employed respondents working at Ngwelezane Hospital, Empangeni and Portnet, Richards Bay. The study failed to find a statistically significant relationship between unemployment and either depression or low self-esteem. Both unemployed and employed respondents had similar depression and self-esteem scores. About 20.5 % and 10.3 % of unemployed and employed respondents respectively were not depressed. About 78.2 % and 89.5 % of unemployed and employed respondents respectively were mild to moderately depressed. Only 1.3 % on the unemployed respondents were severely depressed. About 41.1 % and 33.3 % of unemployed and employed respondents respectively had low self-esteem. About 58.9 % and 64.1 % of unemployed and employed respondents respectively had mild to moderate self-esteem. Only 1.3 % of the employed respondents had high self-esteem. Personal variables such as age, gender, duration of unemployment and marital status were not found to be statistically significantly related to depression and self-esteem scores obtained by the unemployed respondents. Both unemployed and employed respondents gave their experiences of being unemployed in terms of thoughts, feelings and acts. Their experiences are not different from those highlighted by other researchers with the exception of thoughts of prostitution. Their experiences ranged from loss of trust, hopelessness, helplessness, boredom, financial hardships, dependency, frustration, stigma, poverty, loss of confidence, loss of friends, unhappiness, inability to meet children's needs and to pay for their school tuition, thoughts of house breaking and stealing, to optimism and hopefulness. The researcher made the following recommendations: • Further longitudinal studies on psychological effects of unemployment that include all racial groups should be conducted. • Self-help groups that are coordinated by such mental health professionals as psychologists and social workers should be designed in the communities in order to cater for the needs of the unemployed groups. • Counselling and psychotherapy should be provided in the form of crisis intervention and brief short-tern psychotherapy to help individuals and families with debilitating symptoms associated with unemployment. • Vocational guidance material should include material on job-seeking skills. / Human Sciences Research Council

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