Although our society esteems individuals who achieve it all, the 24-hour day and our limited resources means that attaining multiple goals is a difficult undertaking. This research draws upon Lewin’s theorizing on goal conflict and goal interruption to predict how individuals balance important conflicting goals. We predict that when an individual experiences goal conflict, the individual will prioritize his/her goals by moving towards one goal. Counter-intuitively however, we also hypothesize that this movement away from the competing goal will facilitate its pursuit, thus enabling goal balancing. We suggest that when the individual moves towards goal A, the competing goal B’s progress is interrupted. The psychological incompletion of goal B causes its state of tension to persist and consequently the individual feels the need to resume the goal. Accordingly, we expect affective and motivational consequences to this conflict-induced goal interruption. We found support for our hypotheses in 2 experiments that examined the conflict between academic and relationship goals. When individuals who are high in chronic relationship commitment experience goal conflict, they reported higher state relationship commitment (Chapter 2 and 3) and lower academic commitment (Chapter 3), relative to individuals who are low in chronic relationship commitment. However, in support of our conflict-induced goal interruption hypothesis, they also report lower partner affect (Chapter 2) and better performance in an academic-related task (Chapter 3).

Although our society esteems individuals who achieve it all, the 24-hour day and our limited resources means that attaining multiple goals is a difficult undertaking. This research draws upon Lewin’s theorizing on goal conflict and goal interruption to predict how individuals balance important conflicting goals. We predict that when an individual experiences goal conflict, the individual will prioritize his/her goals by moving towards one goal. Counter-intuitively however, we also hypothesize that this movement away from the competing goal will facilitate its pursuit, thus enabling goal balancing. We suggest that when the individual moves towards goal A, the competing goal B’s progress is interrupted. The psychological incompletion of goal B causes its state of tension to persist and consequently the individual feels the need to resume the goal. Accordingly, we expect affective and motivational consequences to this conflict-induced goal interruption. We found support for our hypotheses in 2 experiments that examined the conflict between academic and relationship goals. When individuals who are high in chronic relationship commitment experience goal conflict, they reported higher state relationship commitment (Chapter 2 and 3) and lower academic commitment (Chapter 3), relative to individuals who are low in chronic relationship commitment. However, in support of our conflict-induced goal interruption hypothesis, they also report lower partner affect (Chapter 2) and better performance in an academic-related task (Chapter 3).

Self-regulation is a highly adaptive process that enables goal-directed behaviour; however, individuals often fail to self-regulate successfully. Failures of self-regulation in the domain of health may be particularly harmful especially for those with chronic diseases. The Energy Model articulated by Baumeister and colleagues proposes that all acts of self-regulation rely on a single, finite energy resource. Thus, one possible explanation for self-regulation failure is insufficient energy. In the current research, four studies examine the relationship between the construct of energy, which can manifest in state or trait form, and self-regulatory success. Past research has demonstrated that individuals who perform two sequential tasks requiring self-regulation perform worse on the second task (the self-regulatory fatigue effect). The Energy Model proposes that this performance decrement can be explained by energy depletion. If this is true, then state energy should mediate the self-regulatory fatigue effect. A series of three experimental studies (studies 1-3) were designed to test this hypothesis. In Study 1, participants were randomly assigned to a gaze regulation task or to a no-regulation control group (as in Schmeichel et. al, 2003) before they watched a brief video clip. Following this first task, all participants worked on a second self-regulatory task (solving anagrams). Persistence and performance on this second task were the dependent measures and energy was measured before and after the initial video task. Contrary to the predictions of the Energy Model, the self-regulatory fatigue effect was not replicated in this study and so the mediating potential of energy could not be tested. However, ratings of task difficulty and effort suggested that individuals in the gaze regulation condition did not find this task to be very challenging. Accordingly, a second study was designed that added an additional level of self-regulatory demand by asking participants to rehearse a 7-digit number during the video clip (memory regulation). When this was crossed with the gaze regulation manipulation, four conditions were created: no regulation, gaze regulation only, memory regulation only and memory + gaze regulation. Study 2 then followed the same approximate procedure as Study 1, with individuals randomly assigned to one of the four conditions. The results of this study were consistent with Study 1 in that the self-regulatory fatigue effect was not replicated. However, the manipulation check suggested that some of the participants in the gaze regulation conditions may not have adhered to experimental instructions and the conditions may have differed in the degree to which they were enjoyable and interesting to participants. Accordingly, a third study used an eye-tracker to assess self-regulation during the video task and evaluated aspects of task engagement. Study 3 followed the same procedures as Study 2. Eye-tracker data verified significant differences between the groups in terms of self-regulation during the initial video task; however, there were no other significant between group differences. Taken together, these 3 studies indicate that the self-regulatory fatigue effect may be less robust than previous research would suggest. An unexpected finding was the high degree of variability in the energy measures, which implied that individual differences in energy may be important to consider. Accordingly, Study 4 prospectively examined the role of dispositional energy in the self-regulation of diet and exercise behaviour by testing whether energy moderated intention-behaviour concordance in a sample of individuals newly diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes. This study demonstrated that energy predicted future exercise behaviour in this sample and provided some preliminary support for the hypothesis that individuals with higher levels of dispositional energy may show more intention-behaviour concordance than those with lower levels of dispositional energy. Overall, these 4 studies provide some tentative support for the role of dispositional energy in the implementation of health behaviour, but do not support the Energy Models predictions regarding self-regulatory fatigue.

The purpose of this research is to examine the impact of income inequality on individual creativity. Specifically, it is hypothesized that an individual’s creative performance (via a remote associatives test) is affected negatively in a high income inequality condition. Theoretical research suggests that the mechanism that enables this is self-regulation. As such self-regulation is measured as a mediator in this relationship. Two online-panel experiments were designed and conducted to test these relationships. The results did not show significant results for the mediation relationship. Self-regulation does have a positive relationship with creative performance, and income inequality shows a negative relationship with creativity in some conditions, however there is no relationship between income inequality and self-regulation. This research develops the theoretical background for the relationship between income inequality, self-regulation, and creativity. It also provides some lessons-learned from an experimental mediation design with an independent variable that has multiple categorical variables. / October 2015

PhD / Self-regulation is a vital function to humanity, and is an important factor in the dominant paradigm of consumer research, whereby consumer decisions are characterised by the battle between long- and short-term interests. The current research examined the relative effectiveness of two self-regulatory strategies: stopping an already-commenced consumption episode, or to not commence one at all. Traditional economic theories, including the principle of diminishing marginal utility, would predict that not starting is harder to accomplish; whereas a proposal by Thaler (1983) suggests that not starting is in fact the optimal strategy. Two studies were conducted whereby participants were asked to either perform a less-favoured task and resist from starting a more-favoured one (Not Start), or to cease performing a more-favoured task to complete the less-favoured task (Stop). Study 1 found that Stop was more difficult than Not Start, which tentatively supported Thaler’s argument; however there was an explanation which could not be ruled out, namely the psychological distance of the anticipated second task. Study 2 addressed this issue by manipulating that factor by incorporating it into the experimental design. It was found that Not Start became as depleting as Stop when psychological distance of the second task was reduced. This research contributed to the literature by establishing a boundary condition upon the strength model of self-regulatory resource depletion, and adds to the discussion on the descriptive validity of the principle of diminishing marginal utility.

abstract: This study develops a theoretical model that explains how leaders come to adapt their leadership behaviors to achieve follower effectiveness. Mindfulness theory suggests that mindful individuals are better able to engage in self-regulation and I consider empathy, response flexibility, and emotional regulation as three self-regulatory processes in particular which likely impact the leader-follower relationship. I suggest that leaders who have the ability to self-regulate in these three ways will be better able to engage in leadership behavior characterized by adapting or flexing the specific types of leadership they demonstrate according to the needs of the situation and what their followers most require at a given time to perform at their best. When followers receive the type of situationally-appropriate support in the form of leader behavior, they are more effective (e.g. have higher job performance and extra-role performance). I validate a new trait and state measure of workplace mindfulness with multiple samples and utilize this new scale to collect data from leaders and followers from a government organization to test the theoretical relationships proposed in this study. I utilize an experience sampling methodology (ESM) design over 10 days to investigate the within-leader variation among variables in the study given theory suggesting the dynamic nature of the mindfulness, self-regulation, and situational leadership constructs which may not adequately be captured when data are collected at one point in time. Finally, I introduce organizational constraints as a moderator of the relationship between leader mindfulness and leader self- regulation in order to understand how stressors and strains outside the control of a leader may overload a leader’s ability to ultimately self-regulate his/her behavior. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Business Administration 2015

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Previous research, such as 'exercise determinants', has primarily sampled minimally physically active and sedentary people. In turn, studies focused on correlates of and perceived barriers to minimal physical activity (PA). The present study focused on exercisers (N=247, mean age=34) to assess social cognitive variables associated with PA consistency. Participants were categorized as either inconsistent, or slightly, fairly, or highly consistent exercisers. A new preference construct (type of activity, environment, social setting, feedback) for exercise was developed, and its association with consistency was assessed. Online measures assessed PA levels, preferences, enjoyment, outcome expectancy, self-efficacy, social-support, self-regulation. Higher planning confidence (Ã =.333, p<.000) and frequency (Ã =.276, p<.000) was associated with higher levels of PA consistency. Planning preference influenced planning frequency (Ã =.498, p<.000). Planning confidence influenced planning preference (Ã =.187, p<.003), which mediated its effect on planning frequency (Ã =.220, p<.000). Goal-setting frequency influenced consistency (Ã =.279, p<.000). Goal-setting preference influenced goal-setting frequency (Ã =.668, p<.000). Tracking frequency influenced consistency (Ã =.216, p<.000). Tracking preference influenced tracking frequency (Ã =.696, p<.000). Tracking confidence influenced tracking preference (Ã =.517, p< .000). Age influenced planning confidence (Ã =-.147, p<.021) and goal-setting confidence (Ã =-.164, p<.01). Engaging in PA in one's preferred environment (Ã =.540, p<.000) or with preferred company (Ã =.220, p<.001) was higher among more consistent exercisers. Using strategies to offset perceived barriers to exercise was highly predictive of consistency (Ã =.458, p<.000). Results suggest interventions should assess and match people to PA preference dimensions (i.e. environment, company, and self-regulation strategies) which will increase their self-regulation and ultimately exercise consistency. / Master of Science

abstract: This action research, mixed methods, case study examined middle school student perceptions of the effectiveness of Club Aspire. Club Aspire is an after-school program created to support the lowest achieving seventh and eighth graders in an Arizona K-8 school. The framework of this study comes from the theory of self-regulation, social learning theory and co-regulation. The primary focus of Club Aspire is to teach low achieving middle school students, self-regulation skills and learning strategies through goal setting, self-regulation learning strategy lessons and co-regulation activities. The study took place over 13 weeks and included 11 participants and answered the following research questions. How do middle school Elevate students perceive the impact of Club Aspire on their self-regulation and themselves as a learner? How does Club Aspire affect middle school Elevate students’ academic success? What do middle school Elevate students perceive as the most influential elements of Club Aspire? Data collection tools consisted of interviews, class work, referral data, pre- and post-questionnaire and benchmark assessment data. The study revealed that students made gains in self-regulation learning strategy usage, however, their academic achievement was not influenced. Students identified goal setting, learning self-regulation strategies and co-regulation activities with their peer partner as the most beneficial elements of Club Aspire. The study also revealed that student self-efficacy was increased throughout the semester. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Leadership and Innovation 2017

Students who are self-regulated are more likely to succeed academically, whereas students who have deficiencies in their learning have been recognized as having a lack of metacognitive awareness (Valdez, 2013; Zimmerman, 2002). If students are metacognitively unaware in large introductory courses, they may have difficulty knowing when to self-regulate and modify their learning (Lin & Zabrucky, 1998; Stone, 2000). One manner in which researchers have assessed students’ metacognitive awareness is by asking students to estimate how they think they will do on tasks compared to their actual performance, known as calibration. The purpose of this study was to examine students’ calibration and study habits. Participants were undergraduates (N = 384) in an introductory biology course at a southeastern U.S. university. Students completed four surveys that assessed their exam score expectations and the study habits they used prior to each exam. Results showed that students’ estimates are most discrepant from their actual performance early in the semester and become more accurate at the end of the semester. A closer look at students’ study habits revealed that the inaccuracy of students’ exam judgments showed little connection to the study strategies that students used. Findings from this study are important for biology instructors.