Este trabalho compreende três estudos, tendo por objetivo mais geral analisar o comportamento verbal de pré-escolares em situação de teste e de brinquedo. o primeiro estudo teve por objetivo verificar se a ordem de apresentação de uma gravura e de três séries de pranchas influenciava o comportamento verbal. Foram testadas 48 crianças, de quatro, cinco e seis anos, 50% de cada sexo, sendo todas de classe alta. A metade dos sujeitos foi apresentada inicialmente a gravura e sem seguida as pranchas, e vice-versa. A análise do material coletado não permitiu localizar diferenças entre os sujeitos que foram submetidos às duas sequências. Além disso, não foi encontrada correlação do desempenho nas duas situações. o segundo estudo teve por objetivo estudar o desempenho de 72 crianças das três faixas etárias já referidas, e de nível sócio econômico médio-alto (GA) e baixo (GB e GC} 11 \'ao descrever\' uma gravura e em seguida rotular três séries de pranchas. Quanto as os resultados indicam que: a) houve um maior número de correlações significantes entre cada uma das séries e o total do que nas séries entre si: b) a análise de acertos por Item mostrou que a frequência de palavras com mais de 75% de acerto foi igual à das palavras com menos de 25% de acerto; c) o GA apresentou a maior frequência de palavras com alto e baixo percentual de acertos; d) O GB apresentou a maior frequência de desconhecimento manifesto das pranchas apresentadas; e) a análise focalizando as variáveis faixa etária, sexo e nível sócio-econômico revelou que apenas esta última parece relevante a este tipo de tarefa. Já a avaliação do desempenho face à gravura revelou que: a) foram altas as correlações entre os vários aspectos estudados (vocábulos, come sem re petição, tato considerando o total emitido e sem considerar repetições e sentenças: b) as análises considerando as variáveis faixa etária, sexo e nível sócio-econômico mostraram que apenas esta última, parece relevante. Tão pouco neste estudo foi localizada correlação entre às duas situações. Finalmente, o terceiro estudo visou comparar o desempenho de crianças que apresentaram resultado bom (GD) ou insuficiente (GE) face às pranchas, ao interagir com as suas mães em duas situações de brinquedo, com um quebra-cabeça e com os módulos. Inicialmente os grupos extremos foram comparados, tendo os resultados indica do que eles realmente eram diferentes. Comparou-se os comportamen tos verbais emitidos pela mãe e pela criança, a sequência de inte ração e as pausas existentes nas duas situações. Além disto, con frontou-se as duas situações quanto à eliciação do ,comportamento mais reforçadores positivos, bem como um maior subtotal de estimulos discriminativos verbais: b) na situação módulo\", não foi encontrada diferença quanto aos estImulos liberados, embora tenha ocorrido diferenças quanto à emissão de informações, questões,mandos em geral, reforços positivos, comportamento ecoico e o o subtotal de respostas. todas essas favorecendo o GD. Já a comparaçao das emissões verbais das crianças demonstrou que: a) ao brincar com o quebra-cabeça as crianças de GD liberaram mais informações, tanto como estímulo quanto corno resposta, e além disso, apresentarão um maior sub-total de estimulação; c) ao brincar com o módulo houve uma diferença significante, em favor do GD quanto às informações liberadas (estímulo e resposta), questões formuladas ( também como estímulo e como resposta), frequência de mandos como resposta às solicitações maternas, frequência de respostas estimuladoras do tipo ecoico e finalmente, total de respostas emitidas. O estudo das sequências de interação revelou um padrão idêntico nas duas situações: não houve diferenças na sequência Mãe-mãe, embora tivesse havido nas sequências Mãe-criança, criança-mãe e criança- criança, todas elas favorecendo o GD. Ao considerar as pausas feitas pode ser observado que o GE apresentou períodos grandes de não verbalização nas duas situações tendo diferido significantemente do GE. O resultado do estudo correlacional, indicou que as duas situações são bastante semelhantes em termos de eliciação do comportamento verbal oral. / This work consists of 3 studies, having as a general objective the analysis of the verbal behaviour of kindergarten children playing and being tested. The first study had the objective of verifying if the order of the presentation of a picture and three series of planks influenced the. verbal behaviour. Fourth eight children were tested, four, five and six year olds, 50% of each sex They were all from upper class. Initially, to half of them, the picture was presented then the planks, and then vice-versa. The analysis of the information which was collected in this work did not permit the localization of any difference between the children which were submitted to the two sequences. Besides, no correlation was found of the performance in those two situations. The second study had the objective of studying the performance of 72 children from de same age group, medium-high social-economic level class (GA) and low (GB and GC), during the description of a picture and following the labeling of three series of planks. With respect to the planks the results indicated that: a) there were a greater number of significant correlations amongst each of the series than the total of the series themselves; b) analysis of the correct answer, by item, showed that the frequency of words with more than 75% correct were equal to the words with less than 25% correct; c) the GA showed the greater frequency of words with high and low percentage correct; d)the GB presented the greater frequency Of non-acquaintance when facing the planks; e) the analysis emphasizing the variables of age, sex and social-economic level revealed that only the latter seems to be relevant to this type of work. On the other hand, the appraisal of their performance in front of a picture revealed that: a) the high correlations amounts the various aspects studied (vocabulary with and without repetition, considering the total uttered, without considering repetitions and sentences) these correlations were high; b) considering the various ages, sex and social-economic level, the analysis showed that only the latter seems to be relevant. Even in that study the correlation between the two situations was not localized. Finally, the third study intended to compare the behaviour of children who showed result as good (GD) or insufficient (GE) in front of the planks, when they had the help of their mothers in those two play situations, with a puzzle and with the modulus. Initially the utmost groups were compared, having the results indicating than they were really different. The verbal behaviour uttered by the mother and her child, the sequence of interaction and pauses existent in the two situations were compared. Besides that, the two situations were confronted with respect to the draw out of the verbal behaviour. The analysis of the behaviour of mothers revealed that; a) in the puzzle situation GE mothers had a tendency to utter more \"mands\", command type, and more negative reinforcements, both to stimulate than the GD mothers, the latter had done more positive reinforcements, as well as a bigger sub-total of verbal discriminative stimulus; b) in the situation \"module\" it was not found difference in the liberate stimulus although differences had occourred with respect to the uttering of information, questions, mands, in general, positive reinforcements, echoic behaviour and the sub-total of answers, all these helping the GD. On the other hand, the verbal uttering of children demonstrated that; a)playing with the puzzle the GD children gave more information; as much as an encouragement and answer, and beside that, showed a bigger sub-total of encouragement; b) playing with modules there were a significant difference in favor of GD with respect to the literate liberation encouragement/answer, frequency of mands as an answer to the mother\'s request, frequency of encouragement answer, echoic type and finally total of uttered answer. The study of the interaction sequences revealed an identical pattern in the two situations; there were no difference in the sequence mother-mother, although in had happened in the sequences mother-children, children- mother and children-children, all favoring the GD. Considering the pauses done we can observe that GE presented big periods of non-verbalization in the two situations, showing a significant difference from the GD. The results of the co relational study indicated that the two situations are very similar in terms of expelling the oral/verbal behaviour.

Researchers have linked physical activity (PA) with positive health outcomes. Unfortunately, PA in young people continues to be reported as a concern with many not achieving the recommended guidelines. Further, participation in childhood and adolescence is positively associated with PA into adulthood, highlighting the importance of PA habits in young people for lifelong participation. Gender, socio- economic status (SES), and motivation have all been shown to be important factors that influence participation, and as such are a focus of this thesis. Mixed methods research was adopted to ‘investigate the nature of PA in young people within a Scottish context' including quantitative (study one) and qualitative (studies two and three) methodologies. The initial motivation for study one emerged through my personal interest in understanding the nature of young people's participation in structured club activities and the role SES, gender and motivation play in a Scottish context. Sport is often used as a proxy for PA and as such, young people's participation is frequently reported on sports club based activities. On reflection, this focus on ‘weekly club activity sessions,' rather than a more broad, valid, and reliable measure of PA, limited the application of the findings. Nevertheless, the findings and reflection on the methods used in study one informed the direction of the thesis moving forward. More specifically, SES was found to be the strongest predictor of club activity participation, with those from higher SES taking part in more club activity sessions than those from lower SES. No significant gender differences in participation were found. While SES was the sole predictor of school club activities, perceived competence and intrinsic motivation were also important predictors of participation in out-of-school club activities. The regression models predicted between 5% and 27% of the variance in club participation, highlighting the multi-factorial nature of the influencers of participation. In order to understand the nature of PA more broadly in young people from lower SES within a Scottish context and to investigate the complexity of participation influencers, a qualitative methodology was used. Study two investigated low SES Scottish youths' PA experiences across key development stages (i.e., childhood, adolescence and newly identified early adulthood, study two). Results suggested that young people from low SES participate in a high variety of unstructured PA throughout their lives, which is under reported in the literature. Participation in structured sport based activities in childhood, particularly those in which a young person forms a sport ‘identity,' influences future adherence, but also engagement and enjoyment of school physical education (PE). For many young people, particularly those from less affluent backgrounds, school PE may be the only opportunity for them to participate in structured PA. While some young people embraced school PE, others perceived PE a threatening, so leading them to avoid or drop out altogether. Findings showed that in addition to previous experience, the nature of the PE climate also influenced participation as young people entered early adulthood. As well as shedding light on the broad nature of young people's PA from low SES backgrounds, the findings from study two highlighted the role that schools (e.g., through PE) have in influencing young people's PA and associated attitudes. Study three aimed to investigate young people's PA, motivational influences, and the role of schools from the perspective of qualified Scottish PE teachers, knowledgeable on policy issues and active in the development of future teachers. The main findings from study three showed that family influences (mostly parents) and SES were key towards the formation of young people's attitudes and behaviours towards PA, particularly in sports. Those young people with parents not showing any interest in PA were more likely to be inactive compared to those youngsters with active parents. Young people from lower SES backgrounds were less likely to participate in sports activities, thus preventing them from gaining the necessary experiences (and competencies) needed to successfully take part in many school PE activities. Also, this study found that secondary school PE is perceived by many pupils as threatening which subsequently led many to avoid PE altogether. Many young people are not achieving the curriculum expected health and well-being benefits through school PE. The results also highlighted the huge challenge and role conflict that is apparent for PE teachers in schools, which is a barrier to effective promotion of PA and positive attitudes in a range of young people. This thesis supports the contention that SES is an important factor in young people's PA. While those from lower SES were shown to participate in less structured sport club activity than those from higher SES, evidence emerged suggesting that young people from lower SES participate in a variety of unstructured PA which is underreported in the literature. The complexities of PA participation were also apparent where previous experience, parents and school PE were found to have important roles, which either facilitated or debilitated motivation, and participation. This thesis also highlighted that there are serious challenges in delivering an effective PE experience to pupils with a wide range of ability and backgrounds. These challenges were exacerbated by the vagueness of policy guidance (e.g., within Scotland's curriculum for excellence), the pressures of certification, and the mostly sport dominated culture of PE. Implications for policy and practice in relation to the motivational climate of PEemerged. Recommendations for future research and practice in this area are discussed.

This study examines current domestic provisions and their extent of departure from English common law principles. The purpose of this study is to discover whether differences among state domestic codes are associated with differences among demographic characteristics. If such associations do exist, then some conclusion might be made regarding the feasibility of a national, uniform domestic code. This study examines current domestic provisions and their extent of departure from English common law principles. The purpose of this study is to discover whether differences among state domestic codes are associated with differences among demographic characteristics. If such associations do exist, then some conclusion might be made regarding the feasibility of a national, uniform domestic code.

O aumento da prevalÃncia de fluorose dentÃria à observado tanto em comunidades com Ãgua fluoretada como em Ãreas nÃo fluoretadas, sugerindo assim a ingestÃo de flÃor por outras fontes alÃm da Ãgua de abastecimento pÃblico. O objetivo deste trabalho foi pesquisar a fluorose dentÃria em crianÃas de seis à oito anos no MunicÃpio de Fortaleza-CE e investigar possÃveis fatores de risco ou de proteÃÃo para a fluorose, alÃm de sua relaÃÃo com fatores socioeconÃmicos. Tratou-se de um estudo do tipo caso-controle, desenvolvido no Centro de SaÃde da FamÃlia (CSF) Terezinha Parente. A amostra constou-se de 57 crianÃas sem fluorose (grupo-controle) e 67 crianÃas com fluorose (grupo de casos), onde foi utilizado o Ãndice de Dean para a mediÃÃo da fluorose e definiÃÃo de casos e controles. Os dados foram obtidos atravÃs de entrevistas, com base em um roteiro estruturado com os pais das crianÃas. A anÃlise dos dados foi realizada no programa Epi-Info Windows, onde se utilizou o teste exato de Fisher para verificar a associaÃÃo entre as variÃveis, considerando significativo quando o valor de p<0,05. Calculou-se ainda o odds ratio com intervalo de confianÃa de 95%. Foi observada uma associaÃÃo estatisticamente significante entre a variÃvel condiÃÃo de moradia e fluorose dentÃria (p=0,024 e OR=3,82), enquanto para os outros fatores socioeconÃmicos nÃo foi observada nenhuma associaÃÃo. Com relaÃÃo à fonte de Ãgua para consumo, os dentifrÃcios fluoretados e suplementos de flÃor, nÃo se verificou nenhuma associaÃÃo significante com a presenÃa de fluorose. Observou-se, porÃm, que as crianÃas que iniciaram o consumo de leite em pà reconstituÃdo com Ãgua antes dos dois anos de idade apresentaram uma chance de 4,53 vezes maior de apresentar fluorose (p=0,036). E as crianÃas que nÃo mamaram apresentaram uma chance de 6,66 vezes maior de possuir fluorose dentÃria do que as que mamaram por mais de seis meses (p=0,007). A amamentaÃÃo se configurou como um fator de proteÃÃo para a fluorose dentÃria, enquanto a ingestÃo de leite em pà reconstituÃdo com Ãgua antes dos dois anos se apresentou como um fator de risco. à de fundamental importÃncia o estÃmulo à amamentaÃÃo por parte dos profissionais de saÃde, para garantir nÃo sà uma melhor saÃde geral das crianÃas, mas tambÃm uma melhor saÃde bucal. / The increase of dental fluorosis has been observed in fluoridated and non-fluoridated locations, suggesting the fluoride intake by others sources besides water fluoridated. The aim of this study was to investigate the dental fluorosis in children aged 6 to 8 in Fortaleza, CearÃ, to identify risk and protection factors for dental fluorosis and to verify the possible associated of fluorosis with socioeconomic status. It was a case-control study realized at the health center Terezinha Parente. A total of 57 controls and 67 cases were examined by the Dean index. Data was obtained by interviewing the parents of the children, based on a structured questionnaire. Analyses of the data occurred at the Epi-Info Windows program by the Fisher test with p<0,05 and the odds ratio was calculated, with confidence interval of 95%. Statistically associated between dental fluorosis and the variable condition of live was observed (p=0,024 e OR=3,82), while no association was observed by the others socioeconomic factors. Fluoride intake by children from water, dentifrice and fluoride supplement demonstrated no significant results. But, the children who consumed powdered milk reconstituted with water before 2 years old presented 4,53 more chance to have dental fluorosis (p=0,036). And the children who have not breastfeeding presented 6,66 more chance to have fluorosis than that who breastfeeding for more than 6 mouths (p=0,007). Breastfeeding showed to be a protections factor to dental fluorosis and the consume of powdered milk reconstituted with water before 2 years old demonstrated to be risk factor in this population. Itâs important to health workers recommend breastfeeding to guarantee the oral health of children.

INTRODUÇÃO: O Acidente Vascular Cerebral (AVC) é a segunda causa de mortalidade e a principal causa de incapacidade no mundo. Muitos fatores de riscos estão associados ao AVC, sendo o principal a hipertensão arterial. Vários estudos também mostraram a associação de um baixo status socioeconômico com altas taxas de mortalidade pelo AVC. O presente estudo teve como objetivo analisar a distribuição espacial da mortalidade por AVC na cidade de São Paulo de acordo com os fatores socioeconômicos. MÉTODOS: Estudo realizado nos 96 distritos da cidade de São Paulo no período de 2006 a 2008. Foram analisadas taxas de mortalidade por AVC em ambos os sexos. Os fatores analisados foram % de indivíduos com escolaridade nível superior, % domicílios com três pessoas ou mais morando na residência e % de indivíduos das classes D e E em cada distrito. Aplicou-se a metodologia de agrupamento K-means para análise da distribuição da mortalidade por AVC de acordo com os fatores socioeconômicos e uma regressão linear com heterocedasticidade corrigida para avaliar a relevância de cada fator. RESULTADOS: As médias das taxas de mortalidade por AVC foram mais elevadas nos homens xx (72,7/100.000 habitantes) comparados às mulheres (48,9/100.000 habitantes). O agrupamento A possui os distritos com melhores condições socioeconômicas (51,3% possuem escolaridade superior, 47,3% moram com três pessoas ou mais, 3,23% pertencem a classe D e E) enquanto que os grupos D e E incluem distritos com piores condições socioeconômicas localizados nas áreas mais periféricas. As taxas de mortalidade por AVC foram mais elevadas no grupo E, tanto no sexo masculino (82,7/100.000 habitantes) quanto no feminino (60,2/100.000 habitantes). A regressão linear em ambos os sexos mostrou que o modelo aplicado foi adequado com r² ajustado de 0,64 para homens e 0,70 para mulheres, sendo que a escolaridade superior e três pessoas ou mais habitantes na mesma residência foram significativos (p<0,001, para ambos). CONCLUSÃO: A mortalidade por AVC apresentou uma distribuição diferenciada na cidade de São Paulo com maior mortalidade nas regiões mais pobres e periféricas mostrando uma relação inversa com o status socioeconômico / BACKGROUND: Stroke is the second cause of mortality and the main cause of disabilities in the world. Several risk factors are associated to stroke and the most important is the high blood pressure. Several studies have also showed an association between low socioeconomic status and high stroke mortality rates. The objective of this study is to analyze the spatial distribution of stroke mortality according to socioeconomic status in the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil. METHOD: The study included all the 96 districts of the city from 2006 to 2008. We analyzed stroke mortality rates in both genders. Socioeconomic factors included in the analysis are: % of people with at least college education, % of houses with at least three people living together, and % of people from classes D and E (most deprived people) in the district. We used cluster analysis K-means for evaluation of the distribution of socioeconomic factors and stroke mortality rates and a linear regression with heteroskedasticity corrected to evaluate contribution of each factor on stroke mortality. RESULTS: Mean stroke mortality rate was higher in men (72.7/100,000 inhabitants) compared to women (48.9/100,000 inhabitants). Group A has the districts with better socioeconomic status (51.3% of xxii individuals with at least college, 47.3% of individuals living in a house with at least 3 people, and only 3.2% of individuals of the Classes D and E most deprived people) while groups D and E have the worst economic status living in the most peripheric areas. Stroke mortality rates were higher in group E for men (82.6/100,000 inhabitants) and women (60.2/100,000 inhabitants). For both sexes, a linear regression showed that the applied model was adequate with a adjusted r2 of 0.64 for men and of 0.70 of women with a significant difference for % of individuals with at least college education and % of houses with at least three individuals living together (p<0,001, for both). CONCLUSION: Stroke mortality presented a different spatial distribution in the city with a higher mortality in the most deprived and peripheric areas showing an inverse relationship with socioeconomic status

Children diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) are at a higher risk to develop other serious problems based on reoccurring symptoms such as; aggression, hostility, and lack of empathy for others. Based on the emotional intelligence theory, it may be possible that understanding emotional intelligence in children with ODD could help reduce future psychological and social problems. This quantitative study addresses the problem of poor or low Emotional Intelligence (EI) in children diagnosed with ODD. A correlation between parenting style, as defined by Baumrind's parenting style theory, and the development of emotional intelligence has been found in current research. However, there is limited research which addresses the potential moderating effect of socioeconomic status (SES) on the relationship between parenting style and level of emotional intelligence in young children (4-8 years) diagnosed with ODD. Parents of children aged 4-8 years old, with a diagnosis of ODD, were sampled and asked to complete three surveys: Kuppuswamy's Socioeconomic Scale, Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire, and The Parenting Rating Sclae from Childrens Emotional Intellignce (4-8). There were 85 surevys completed. A multiple regression analysis with a moderator was used and the results did not show statistically significant impacts of SES on the relationship between parenting styles and level of emotional intelligence in young children diagnosed with ODD. Social change impacts may include: access to behavioral/mental health resources for families in low income neighborhoods and parent education/training.

Blacks in the United States have the highest rates of hypertension in the world, and their cardiovascular disease mortality rates are higher than for any other population group as a result of traditional risk factors such as obesity and stronger family history. However, additional underlying factors, such as social determinants of health (e.g., socioeconomic status [SES]) and macrosocial factors (e.g., racism), also correlate with adverse health outcomes. This study investigated whether the interaction between SES mobility over the lifecourse and lifetime racial discrimination influenced the extent to which hypertension contributed to the cardiovascular disease health disparities observed among Blacks in the Jackson Heart Study (JHS). Using a socioecological framework, cross-sectional data collected from the baseline period on a cohort of 5,302 JHS participants were analyzed with multiple regression techniques. The study findings indicated that SES mobility, as measured by education, predicted both the racial discrimination exposure and the burden that individuals experience. However, neither SES mobility nor racial discrimination had any effect in moderating the relationship between hypertension and cardiovascular disease when examined individually or collectively. This study examined a new approach for measuring the influence of racial discrimination on health outcomes. Multidisciplinary public health and research partners should continue to advance understanding of the complex health impact of such experiences on individuals and the dynamics that create racial factors in order to effect social change.

Malaria in pregnancy remains a public health challenge in Nigeria despite the fund appropriation for malaria control. The health challenges of malaria in pregnancy vary with populations and there is limited knowledge on the impact of the socioeconomic status and health-seeking behavior on malaria in pregnancy in Nigeria. The objective of this cross-sectional quantitative survey was to examine whether socioeconomic status and health-seeking behavior predict malaria in pregnancy in Nigeria using the social cognitive theoretical model. The data from a 2015 Nigeria Malaria Indicator Survey was used in this study. Data were analyzed using chi-square, binary, and multivariate logistics regression analyses. The study demonstrated that socioeconomic status (wealth index/income [Poorest: OR 2.709, 95% CI 1.869-3.928, p 0.000; Poorer: OR 1.791, 95% CI 1.256-2.555, p 0.00] and no education: OR 2.868, 95% CI 1.761-4.671, p 0.000) made significant contributions in predicting malaria in pregnancy. The research results also showed that socioeconomic status is a predictor of health-seeking behavior (wealth index/income [Poorest: OR 0.414, 95% CI 0.244-0.705, p 0.001], no education: OR 0.329, 95% CI 0.174-0.622, p 0.001 and primary education: OR 0.348, 95% CI 0.191-0.636, p 0.001). Additionally, the study findings showed that malaria in pregnancy determined the choice of formal health-seeking behavior by pregnant women (malaria in pregnancy: OR 0.551, 95% CI 0.469-0.648, p 0.000). The results of this research might guide Nigeria's Ministry of Health to develop approaches on women empowerment that would focus on socioeconomic status and health-seeking behavior of women such as programs to improve women's education and income generation.

Background: The study is based in post-apartheid South Africa and looks at the health and well being of households in the rural northeast. Temporary migration remains important in South Africa because it functions as a mainstay for income and even survival of rural communities. The economic base of rural South Africans is surprisingly low because there is high inequity at a national level, within and between racial groups. There has now been a democratic system in place for 15 years and there is no longer restriction of mobility, but there remain high levels of poverty in rural areas and rising mortality rates. Migration patterns did not change after apartheid in the manner expected. We need to examine consequences of migration and learn how to offset negative impacts with targeted policies. Aims: To determine a relevant typology of migration in a typical rural sending community, namely the Agincourt sub-district of Mpumalanga, South Africa, and relate it to the urban transition at a national level – Paper (I) . To evaluate the dynamics of socio-economic status in this rural community and examine the relationship with migration – Paper (II). To explore, using longitudinal methods, the impact of migration on key dimensions of health, including adult and child mortality, and sexual partnerships, over a period of an emerging HIV/AIDS epidemic – Papers (III), (IV) and (V). Methods: The health and socio-demographic surveillance system (HDSS) is a large open cohort where the migration dynamics are monitored as they unfold. They are recorded as temporary or permanent migration. Settled refugees are captured using nationality on entry into the HDSS. Longitudinal methods, namely a household panel and two discrete time event history analyses, are used to examine consequences of migration. Results: Migration features prominently and different types have different age and sex profiles. Temporary migration impacts the most on socio-economic status (SES) and health, but permanent migration and the settlement of former refugees are also important. Remittances from migrants make a significant difference to SES. For the poorest households the key factors improving SES are government grants and female temporary migration, while for less poor it is male temporary migration and local employment. Migration has been associated with HIV. Migrants that return more frequently may be less exposed to outside partners and therefore less implicated in the HIV epidemic. There are links between migration and mortality including a higher risk of dying for returnee migrants compared to permanent residents. A mother’s migration can impact on child survival after accounting for other factors. There remains a higher mortality risk for children of Mozambican former refugee parents. Interpretation: Migration changes the risks and resources for health with positive and negative implications. Measures such as improved transportation and roads should be seen as a positive, not a negative intervention, even though it will create more migration. Health services need to adapt to a reality of high levels of circular migration ranging from budget allocation to referral systems. Data should be enhanced at a national level by accounting for temporary migration in national censuses and surveys. At individual level we can offset negative consequences by treating migrants as persons striving against adversity, instead of unwelcome visitors in our better-off communities.

Despite substantial evidence linking improved pregnancy outcomes with receipt of prenatal care and recent improvements in prenatal care utilization, specific subpopulations continue to receive late prenatal care and experience adverse birth outcomes. This study will use the Health Belief Model and the Intersectionality Framework to examine the timing of prenatal care utilization, prenatal care compliance, and adverse birth outcomes within a group of low-income, black women in the South. Black women have worst rates of late prenatal care utilization and compliance than any other racial group. This late prenatal care utilization and compliance leads to adverse birth outcomes. A secondary data analysis was conducted using binary logistic regression and OLS regression to examine agency factors, structural factor, and risk health behavior in predicting timing of prenatal care utilization and compliance. In addition, this study also examines timing of prenatal care utilization and compliances and its effects on preterm birth and low birth weight. The results show that family size and knowledge/attitude significantly influences timing of prenatal care. Prenatal care compliance is influenced by church social support and low birth weight is influenced by private insurance. The results of this study show that although much is known in comparing different racial groups, more investigation is needed to explain why low income black women still experience less prenatal care use and compliance and worse adverse birth outcomes than any other racial group in the United States.