Sport and sport events contribute a big percentage to the growth of sport tourism in South Africa. South Africa also hosts some of the most significant endurance events such as the Cape Argus, Cape Epic, Midmar Mile, Two Oceans Marathon and the Comrades Marathon. These endurance events have the potential to enhance endurance sport in South Africa and can also be used as a tool for tourism. It is important however, to determine the endurance sport consumption behaviour for participants and spectators who attend these events, since their behaviour and habits will influence their choices pertaining to travelling for sport events and even tourism. Sport tourism literature currently does not provide information and insight on this matter. Due to the lack of literature pertaining to endurance sport consumption behaviour, a description had to be provided to aid with the study. Endurance sport consumption behaviour (ESCB) in this study is therefore described as behaviour revealed by sport consumers who adapt their lifestyles after realising their desire to be self-complete, by testing and developing their bodies through sport activities. Sport consumption becomes the essence when participating in competitive, nature-related and fitness activities for both professional and amateur sport consumers. For spectatorship, these behaviours will differ, since the intentions of fans and supporters as well as the reasons for spectating differ, but sport events give them the opportunity to engage in sport on a different level, whether for the event or for the participant. These behavioural intentions can be influenced by the sport consumers’ attitude and subjective norms. ESCB is influenced by three main factors and includes: the demographic and behavioural profile; the motives and travel behaviour and the commitment towards the sport/event. The goal of the study was therefore to do a critical assessment of sport consumption at endurance sport events. In order to achieve this aim, secondary data of five endurance events (Cape Argus, Cape Epic, Midmar Mile, Two Oceans Marathon and the Comrades Marathon) were pooled. A total of 6453 questionnaires were distributed between the respective events for both participants and spectators attending these sport events and were included in the statistical analysis. From a first point of view, these sport consumers might seem homogenous, but when analysing the results, it became evident that sport participants and spectators (with regards to participation and support of endurance events) were not homogenous pertaining to their sport consumption behaviour at the respective endurance sport events. There are four main aspects that drive ESCB for endurance participants, namely the type of participant who pursues the sport; the age of the participant; the type of sport and the motives to participate. Four travel motives for these endurance sport participants were commitment, intrinsic achievement, escape and socialisation and the challenge these events provide. Endurance participants furthermore see sport events as an opportunity to travel. The spectators’ ESCB were driven by their socio-demographic and behavioural profile and the motives for supporting the respective endurance events. Endurance sport spectators were motivated by the social interaction and the sport novelty of the sport events. Their memorable experiences were influenced by the event’s personnel and provision, amenities, comfort and visibility, infrastructure and marketing. The study made literature contributions pertaining to the description of ESCB, which were lacking from sport tourism literature. Based on the results, recommendations were made, not only based on ESCB, but also on how these types of events can be used to enhance sport tourism in South Africa as well as the participation and support for these types of sport. Spectators’ views on endurance sport events were also lacking. The study indicated that these consumers were personally involved with the participants’ journey to success, compared to supporters who attended for the event in specific. In this study, sport consumer profiles are compared on a large scale, which have not yet been done in current sport literature, providing a holistic overview of endurance sport consumers. Sport consumer profiles are influenced by the sport context and the marketing of these events, but most importantly the ESCB. Practical contributions include the specialisation for endurance sport events, the growth for sport and tourism and insights to consumer behaviour for sport event organisers and marketers. This study is important, especially for sport marketers and organisations, in order to ensure the long term sustainability and competitiveness for the sport industry as well as for expanding sport tourism and tourism in South Africa. / PhD (Tourism Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Sport and sport events contribute a big percentage to the growth of sport tourism in South Africa. South Africa also hosts some of the most significant endurance events such as the Cape Argus, Cape Epic, Midmar Mile, Two Oceans Marathon and the Comrades Marathon. These endurance events have the potential to enhance endurance sport in South Africa and can also be used as a tool for tourism. It is important however, to determine the endurance sport consumption behaviour for participants and spectators who attend these events, since their behaviour and habits will influence their choices pertaining to travelling for sport events and even tourism. Sport tourism literature currently does not provide information and insight on this matter. Due to the lack of literature pertaining to endurance sport consumption behaviour, a description had to be provided to aid with the study. Endurance sport consumption behaviour (ESCB) in this study is therefore described as behaviour revealed by sport consumers who adapt their lifestyles after realising their desire to be self-complete, by testing and developing their bodies through sport activities. Sport consumption becomes the essence when participating in competitive, nature-related and fitness activities for both professional and amateur sport consumers. For spectatorship, these behaviours will differ, since the intentions of fans and supporters as well as the reasons for spectating differ, but sport events give them the opportunity to engage in sport on a different level, whether for the event or for the participant. These behavioural intentions can be influenced by the sport consumers’ attitude and subjective norms. ESCB is influenced by three main factors and includes: the demographic and behavioural profile; the motives and travel behaviour and the commitment towards the sport/event. The goal of the study was therefore to do a critical assessment of sport consumption at endurance sport events. In order to achieve this aim, secondary data of five endurance events (Cape Argus, Cape Epic, Midmar Mile, Two Oceans Marathon and the Comrades Marathon) were pooled. A total of 6453 questionnaires were distributed between the respective events for both participants and spectators attending these sport events and were included in the statistical analysis. From a first point of view, these sport consumers might seem homogenous, but when analysing the results, it became evident that sport participants and spectators (with regards to participation and support of endurance events) were not homogenous pertaining to their sport consumption behaviour at the respective endurance sport events. There are four main aspects that drive ESCB for endurance participants, namely the type of participant who pursues the sport; the age of the participant; the type of sport and the motives to participate. Four travel motives for these endurance sport participants were commitment, intrinsic achievement, escape and socialisation and the challenge these events provide. Endurance participants furthermore see sport events as an opportunity to travel. The spectators’ ESCB were driven by their socio-demographic and behavioural profile and the motives for supporting the respective endurance events. Endurance sport spectators were motivated by the social interaction and the sport novelty of the sport events. Their memorable experiences were influenced by the event’s personnel and provision, amenities, comfort and visibility, infrastructure and marketing. The study made literature contributions pertaining to the description of ESCB, which were lacking from sport tourism literature. Based on the results, recommendations were made, not only based on ESCB, but also on how these types of events can be used to enhance sport tourism in South Africa as well as the participation and support for these types of sport. Spectators’ views on endurance sport events were also lacking. The study indicated that these consumers were personally involved with the participants’ journey to success, compared to supporters who attended for the event in specific. In this study, sport consumer profiles are compared on a large scale, which have not yet been done in current sport literature, providing a holistic overview of endurance sport consumers. Sport consumer profiles are influenced by the sport context and the marketing of these events, but most importantly the ESCB. Practical contributions include the specialisation for endurance sport events, the growth for sport and tourism and insights to consumer behaviour for sport event organisers and marketers. This study is important, especially for sport marketers and organisations, in order to ensure the long term sustainability and competitiveness for the sport industry as well as for expanding sport tourism and tourism in South Africa. / PhD (Tourism Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Konsumtion av sport är mer än bara laget/idrottaren i sig. Supporterengagemang är en del i sportkonsumtionen, bland annat genom människor som deltar i tävlingar och matcher för att stötta sitt lag/idrottare. Engagemanget kan vara gynnsamt för både sportorganisationen och den individuella supportern och kan bidra med både positiva och negativa effekter. Studiens syfte var att undersöka motivationsfaktorer hos supportrarna, för att se vad som ger upphovtill deras engagemang. Efter analys av tidigare studier inom området, skapade vi en egenmodell med ett antal utvalda motivationsfaktorer. För att mäta faktorerna användes en webbenkät som instrument. Enkätundersökningen skickades ut via ett snöbollsurval tillsupportrar för diverse sportorganisationer i Sverige. Resultatet blev en respons på 287enkätsvar, och för att analysera detta tillämpades en regressionsanalys. Resultatet visade att Självidentitet var den största motivationsfaktorn till att supportrar väljer att engagera sig i ett lag/idrottare. Även skillnader mellan fysiskt engagemang och engagemang på sociala medier mättes, där Social gemenskap var en större motivationsfaktor på sociala medier än för det fysiska engagemanget. Vidare mätte vi eventuella skillnader i engagemanget mellan kvinnor och män, då man i tidigare forskning sett brist på data inom området. Resultatet för studien visade att engagemanget inte skiljer sig något nämnvärt åt mellan kvinnor och män, och att samma motivationsfaktorer är underliggande för båda parters engagemang. Den enda möjliga slutsats för könsskillnader som kunde mätas, var att mängenerellt anser sig vara mer engagerade än vad kvinnor anser sig vara. / Sport consumption is more than just the team/athlete itself. Fan engagement is a part of the consumption, for example through people that are attending competitions and games to support their team/athlete. Fan engagement comes with both positive and negative effects, as well as bringing different kinds of profits to both the sport organisation and the individual fan. The aim of the study was to examine motivational factors for sport fans to see which factors contribute most to their engagement. After analysing previous studies on the subject, we created our own model using a few selected motivational factors. To measure the motivators, we created an online self-questionnaire survey. Through a snowballing sample we collected answers from fans of multiple sport organisations in Sweden. As a result we received 287responses that later was analysed through a regression analysis. The results showed that Self identity was the key motivator to why sport fans decides to engage with a team/athlete. The differences between physical engagement and social media engagement was measured as well. The results showed that Social community was proven to be a higher motivator on social media engagement rather than in physical engagement. Furthermore, the differences in engagement between men and women were measured, since studies on this subject was lacking in previous research. The results showed little difference between the two and that they are driven by the same motivators. The only possible conclusion regarding differences between the genders was that men, in general, consider themself more engaged in sports than women do.

The purpose of this study was to explore the differences between American students and Asian international students' frequency of sport spectating, motivation, team identification, future behavior and perceived barriers to attending intercollegiate sporting events. This study designed to provide sport marketers and athletic directors within intercollegiate programs a more comprehensive understanding of Asian international students and American students' characteristics by comparing the differences of spectating behavior, team identification, motivation and potential barriers between the groups. The results of this study show that there were significant differences on the variables between groups. Two groups differed on frequency of attending, frequency of watching, education, income, and marital status. Moreover, American students scored significantly higher on the motivation, team identification and future behavior than Asian international students. On the other hand, Asian international students scored significantly higher on the barrier factor than American students.

Global Alliance of Marketing and Management Associations (GAMMA). The purpose of this study was to propose and empirically test a sport spectator behavioral model. The model presented here is a micro-level perspective of value creation in the context of live sporting events. This study used directional hypotheses to compare the influence of different value dimensions on specific customer behaviors in the setting of North American professional sport. Structural equation modeling was performed to examine path coefficients for the hypothesized relationships in the model. Organization-related value propositions were found to be stronger predictors of perceived economic, hedonic, and social value. One exception to this was customer density, which negatively impacted certain value perceptions. The hedonic value was found to have the strongest influence on customer in-role and extra-role behavior. The behavioral model tested here can be used in future studies to examine how sport organizations and their customers can create value in the live event setting and how the roles performed by each stakeholder influence future behavior. Findings suggest there are several actions marketers and managers can take to increase customer perceived value and prompt spectators to attend future events or act as advocates for the organization.

No description available.

Sport team fans identify with a team and continually internalize their favorite team as part of their self-concept (Wann, Melnick, Russel, & Pease, 2001). However, individuals simultaneously act different from the group to fulfill a psychological need to be distinct and unique (e.g., Brewer, 1991). The majority of prior studies in sport consumption behavior have emphasized that the sense of belonging to a sport team significantly influences a fan’s attitude toward the team and consequent sport consumption behaviors. Beyond the fan-team relationship, there has been limited research on why an individual fan behaves differently from others in the group, specifically why and how sport fans assert their personal and collective selves while in groups. Furthermore, fans attach not only to their favorite sport teams, but also to a fan community which support the team. Under the optimal distinctiveness framework, group dynamics are conceptualized as perceived interchangeability of group inclusion to the same group and interindividual differences (Simon & Kampmeier, 2001). This notion highlights the opposing forces or needs between fan distinctiveness (FD), to be distinct from other group members, and fan inclusiveness (FI), to be similar to other group members, as mutual determinants of the interpersonal self. Thus, the purpose of this research is to explore the psychological mechanism through which sport fans in a fan group balance two conflicting needs of group dynamics to make a decision on team apparel consumption. This was accomplished through two studies. Study 1 employed a survey design to confirm the established evidence on the effects of team identification on team merchandise consumption behaviors in prior sport management studies. It also uncovered the role of group dynamics in sport fans’ team apparel consumption behavior. Findings of Study 1 showed that the mechanism of group dynamics was induced by a level of FI, FD, or both. With a sequential association from university identification (UID) to team identification (TID), the group dynamics were shown to significantly influence team apparel consumption behavior. Study 2 replicated the findings of Study 1 with undergraduate students and National Football League (NFL) fans across group contexts. Study 2 was implemented with the same measurement items to investigate whether the effect of group dynamics on team apparel consumption are moderated by social visibility as a situational cue as well as a boundary condition. Study 2 provided additional evidence of the mechanism underlying the impact of group dynamics on team apparel consumption across two different research contexts. The overarching theoretical implication is that the mediator (group dynamics) and moderators (social visibility and context) influence sport fans’ team apparel consumption behaviors. The pendulum effect between the opposing forces of FI and FD in terms of group dynamics provide an insightful idea to extend optimal distinctiveness theory (ODT) framework and advance the theory. FD and FI play a key role in predicting fan unique team apparel consumption behavior. Moreover, if one of the needs, either FD or FI, are too dominate, the pendulum effect will help balance the needs out. The existing concept of group dynamics explains why sport fans seek unique team products, but cannot account for the traditional perspective of TID to consumption behavior models. Therefore, the current findings further understanding of why and how individuals within a group of fans consume team products based on their unique balance between group inclusiveness and personal distinctiveness. The findings will provide practical guidelines for both teams and sports brand marketers to understand the desire of sophisticated consumers to signal their individuality and what products and services should be offered according to the context-specific need. / Tourism and Sport

[pt] Este estudo investigou a relação entre o consumo de futebol e os fãs de times a partir da perspectiva teórica do Extended Self. O estudo cross-country, examina as semelhanças e diferenças entre torcedores de futebol brasileiros e torcedores de futebol franceses em relação a (i) os antecedentes para fãs de time, (ii) os componentes afetivos, cognitivos e comportamentais dos fãs de time; e (iii) até que ponto os torcedores incorporam o time de futebol a si mesmos. A metodologia consistiu na aplicação de uma pesquisa online a torcedores de futebol brasileiros e franceses – indivíduos que consomem futebol e possuem um time de sua preferência. As escalas utilizadas para medir os construtos foram identificadas na literatura e previamente desenvolvidas e validadas em outros estudos. Os dados foram coletados por meio de questionários autoaplicáveis na internet. Os participantes foram recrutados por e-mail ou redes sociais com um link para o questionário. O teste das hipóteses da pesquisa utilizou a Modelagem de Equações Estruturais. Dado o relacionamento de longo prazo entre o torcedor e o time, somado ao avanço da internet, que aumenta a interação e a experiência personalizada do consumidor de futebol, é fundamental entender mais sobre o indivíduo. O estudo contribui para aumentar nosso conhecimento sobre o consumidor de futebol e os mecanismos psicológicos dos fãs de futebol. / [en] This study investigated the relationship between the consumption of football and team fandom departing from the theoretical perspective of the extended self. A cross-country study, it examines the similarities and differences between Brazilian football fans and French football fans regarding (i) the antecedents of team fandom, (ii) the affective, cognitive, and behavioral components of team fandom; and (iii) the extent to which fans incorporate the football team to their selves. The methodology consisted of applying an online survey to Brazilian and French football fans – individuals that consume football and have a team of their preference. The scales used to measure the constructs were identified in the literature and previously developed and validated in other studies. Data were collected using self-administered questionnaires on the internet. Participants were recruited by email or social networks with a link to the questionnaire. The test of the research hypotheses used structural equation modeling. Given the long-term relationship between the football fan and the team plus the advance of the internet, which increases the interaction and personalized football consumer experience, it is crucial to understand more about the individual. The study contributes to increase our knowledge about the football consumer and the psychological mechanisms behind fandom.