Το σημαντικότερο στοιχείο σε μία ηλεκτρολογική εγκατάσταση είναι η γείωση. Με τον όρο γείωση εννοούμε τη διαδρομή του ηλεκτρικού ρεύματος μέσα σε καθοδηγούμενα πλαίσια προς τη γη.Με τη μέθοδο αυτή αποφεύγεται η πρόκληση τυχόν βλαβών στους χρήστες σε περιπτώσεις διαρροής, λόγω του ότι το ρεύμα καθοδηγείται μέσα από τα μεταλλικά μέρη του κτιρίου ή μέσω του αγωγού γειώσεως, χωρίς να διαπεράσει το ανθρώπινο σώμα. Η απόδοση των συστημάτων γείωσης που υπόκεινται σε κρουστικά ρεύματα διαδραματίζει σημαντικό ρόλο στην ασφαλή και αξιόπιστη λειτουργία ενός συστήματος ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Η συμπεριφορά της αντικεραυνικής προστασίας των υποσταθμών, σχετίζεται με τα κρουστικά χαρακτηριστικά των διατάξεων γείωσης. Προκειμένου να επιτευχθεί η ορθή σχεδίαση του ηλεκτρικού συστήματος, σε ότι αφορά την προστασία των εγκαταστάσεων έναντι ανώμαλων γεγονότων, είναι θεμελιώδες και απολύτως απαραίτητο να προβλεφθεί η μεταβατική συμπεριφορά ενός συστήματος γείωσης, υπό την επίδραση κρουστικών κεραυνικών ρευμάτων, ή ρευμάτων σφάλματος. Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία πραγματοποιήθηκε με σκοπό τη μελέτη και την προσομοίωση της μεταβατικής κυρίως συμπεριφοράς του συστήματος γείωσης Υ/Σ υψηλής τάσης της ΔΕΗ,καθώς σε αυτό το στάδιο εμφανίζονται τα πιο επικίνδυνα από ηλεκτρικής απόψεως φαινόμενα.Συγκεκριμένα εξετάστηκε το πλέγμα γείωσης του Υ/Σ ανύψωσης 20/150kV, για σύνδεση αιολικού πάρκου στο Περδικοβούνι,του δήμου Κορώνιας στη Βοιωτία. Για την μεταβατική ανάλυση χρησιμοποιήθηκε το πρόγραμμα προσομοίωσης ηλεκτρομαγνητικών φαινομένων για συστήματα ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας ATP- EMTP, απ’ όπου λαμβάνονται τα αποτελέσματα υπό μορφή γραφημάτων στις περιπτώσεις πλήγματος κεραυνού, αλλά και σφάλματος στο μετασχηματιστή ισχύος. Για την μελέτη του συγκεκριμένου πλέγματος λάβαμε υπόψη το φαινόμενο του ιονισμού του εδάφους και κάναμε χρήση του μοντέλου του κυκλώματος με κατανεμημένες και χρονικά μεταβαλλόμενες παραμέτρους. Η επιλογή του μοντέλου αυτού έγινε με γνώμονα την απλότητα εφαρμογής του μοντέλου, καθώς επίσης δύναται και με ιδιαίτερη ευκολία να λάβει υπόψη το φαινόμενο ιονισμού του εδάφους και των αμοιβαίων συζεύξεων. / The most important element in an electrical installation is the grounding.By the term grounding we mean the path of the electrical current through guided context to earth. This method avoids causing any harm to the users in case of leakage, because the current is driven through the metal parts of the building or through the grounding conductor, without penetrating the human body. The performance of grounding systems that are subject to impulse currents play a significant role in the safe and reliable operation of a power system. The behavior of the lightning protection of substations, is related to impulse characteristics of grounding provisions. In order to achieve the proper design of the electrical system, as regards the protection of installations against abnormal events is fundamental and absolutely necessary to predict the transient behavior of grounding systems under the influence of lightning percussive currents or fault currents. The present thesis was undertaken in order to study and simulate the transient mainly behavior of the grounding system of a voltage rise substation as this is the stage where the most dangerous,in terms of electricity,phenomena appear.Specifically,what was examined is the grounding grid of the voltage rise substation 20/150 kV to Perdikovouni,in Viotia for connection with a wind farm.For the transient analysis we used the program ATP-EMTP which is a software designed for simulating electromagnetic phenomena for electrical power systems and from where the results are received in graphical form in the case of a lighting strike as well as during a power transformer fault. For the study of this particular grid we took into consideration the effect of ionization of the ground and we used the model of the circuit with distributed and time-varying parameters. The choice of this model was based on the simplicity of applicating the model, as well as on the fact that it can take into account with particular ease the phenomenon of soil ionization and mutual couplings.

The issue of substation integration is recognized as a very important one ever since the process of technological development brought a multitude of new computer-based devices and functions into substation operation. During the relatively short time period after the first microprocessors were invented, a myriad of computer-based devices found their application in power engineering. Those devices had a variety of input and output data formats, which hampered exchange of data among different devices. Recent initiatives for standardization of substation data formats and communication protocols have progressed to facilitate production of devices with standardized data formats and data exchange capabilities. Central substation computers now have an opportunity to collect and process data from such computer-based devices. An advanced data collecting and processing solution is developed and implemented as Integrated Substation Software in an effort to enhance substation integration. This report describes a solution that comprises data generation using a substation model, data collecting from modeled apparatus and instruments and finally application of data processing and consistency checking algorithms for creating outputs. The process of data collecting and processing is automated and repeated in equidistant time intervals. Results of processing and related reports are concisely displayed on the user interface screen and exported through data files. The Substation Integration Software was tested through the set of scenarios where each scenario is used to test one of the processing and consistency checking algorithms. The results show that measurements are improved and applicable for usage by other substation and system-wide applications.

Minimization of Construction Costs of Substation Grounding Grids: In every electrical installation, one of the most important aspects is adequate grounding; in particular, the grounding of high-voltage substations to protect people and equipment in the event of an electrical fault. Well-designed grounding systems ensure the performance of power systems and safety of personnel. It is desirable that the substation grounding provides a near zero resistance to remote earth. The prevailing practice of most utilities is to install a grid of horizontal ground electrodes (buried bare copper conductors) supplemented by a number of vertical ground rods connected to the grid, and by a number of equipment grounding mats and interconnecting cables. The grounding grid provides a common ground for the electrical equipment and for all metallic structures at the station. It also limits the surface potential gradient. Currently the IEEE 80-2000 standard for substations grounding limits the determination of the grounding parameters (namely step, touch and ground potential rise) to that of a uniform soil model unless the Sunde graphical method is used. With the Sunde graphical method, it relies on interpretation to obtain a two layer soil model. Without the use of the graphical method, the IEEE 81-1983 has several empirical equations that can be used for the two layer model; however, these equations rely on the use of images which retard the speed of calculations to the point where the overall optimization of the grounding grid (with respect to size and shape) has yet to be determined. The goal of the thesis was to improve upon the current restrictions for the grounding grid design, while minimizing the material (i.e., copper conductors) and installation costs of a grid. The first part of the research examined previous work through a combination of literature review, mathematical computations, and field measurements to validate the theoretical aspects of grid design. The thesis introduces an optimized uniform and two-layer soil with fast accurate calculations directly from soil measurements without the use of graphical methods or the use of complex image theory. Next, the thesis develops enhanced grounding parameter equations using Simpson’s Rule of integration. The final part of the thesis demonstrates how it is possible to optimize the configuration of the grounding grid itself, minimizing costs, and yet still achieving a safe installation. This is the first time such an optimization is possible, and it is made possible by the techniques developed in this thesis. The techniques are applied to existing real-world grid designs, and the results obtained show the effectiveness of the method in reducing construction costs. This thesis shows how these construction and material savings are realized by utilizing a process whereby the grounding design minimizes the overall cost. The overall contribution of this thesis is the optimization of the grounding grid design by eliminating the current restrictions found in the IEEE standards 80 and 81, respectively, and offering an optimized grounding system design, starting from the soil model to the actual grounding design itself.

abstract: Dynamic loading is the term used for one way of optimally loading a transformer. Dynamic loading means the utility takes into account the thermal time constant of the transformer along with the cooling mode transitions, loading profile and ambient temperature when determining the time-varying loading capability of a transformer. Knowing the maximum dynamic loading rating can increase utilization of the transformer while not reducing life-expectancy, delaying the replacement of the transformer. This document presents the progress on the transformer dynamic loading project sponsored by Salt River Project (SRP). A software application which performs dynamic loading for substation distribution transformers with appropriate transformer thermal models is developed in this project. Two kinds of thermal hottest-spot temperature (HST) and top-oil temperature (TOT) models that will be used in the application--the ASU HST/TOT models and the ANSI models--are presented. Brief validations of the ASU models are presented, showing that the ASU models are accurate in simulating the thermal processes of the transformers. For this production grade application, both the ANSI and the ASU models are built and tested to select the most appropriate models to be used in the dynamic loading calculations. An existing application to build and select the TOT model was used as a starting point for the enhancements developed in this work. These enhancements include:  Adding the ability to develop HST models to the existing application,  Adding metrics to evaluate the models accuracy and selecting which model will be used in dynamic loading calculation  Adding the capability to perform dynamic loading calculations,  Production of a maximum dynamic load profile that the transformer can tolerate without acceleration of the insulation aging,  Provide suitable output (plots and text) for the results of the dynamic loading calculation. Other challenges discussed include: modification to the input data format, data-quality control, cooling mode estimation. Efforts to overcome these challenges are discussed in this work. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Electrical Engineering 2011

Em virtude da grande proporção das falhas humanas em relação ao número total de falhas, dos gargalos de fornecimento de energia elétrica e do histórico de falhas humanas ocorridas nos últimos anos no sistema elétrico brasileiro, a análise da confiabilidade humana é relevante para o setor elétrico para o aumento da confiabilidade e mitigação da ocorrência de corte de fornecimento de energia aos consumidores. Nesse contexto, esse trabalho objetiva aplicar uma metodologia existente para analisar a probabilidade de ocorrência de falha humana em uma subestação de energia elétrica. Aborda o assunto inicialmente revisando a evolução do cenário de falhas humanas, desde o período da Guerra Fria (1945 a 1989), quando se realizaram os primeiros estudos, até o atual momento, para contextualizar a necessidade de atualização dos conhecimentos sobre confiabilidade humana. No referencial teórico, compilaram-se as conceituações dos diversos métodos utilizados para realização da análise da confiabilidade humana e os fatores que exercem influência sobre o desempenho do operador na execução das tarefas. Elaborou-se uma tabela com o objetivo de propiciar a comparação entre os diversos métodos com suas vantagens e desvantagens. Na sequência, faz-se a apresentação da metodologia para análise da confiabilidade humana, com a definição do cenário crítico, análise dos fatores que exercem influência sobre o desempenho dos operadores e estruturação e análise da árvore de decisão holística com os possíveis valores de probabilidade de ocorrência de erros humanos. Os resultados de sua aplicação em uma subestação do setor elétrico localizada no Estado de Mato Grosso indicaram um valor inicial de probabilidade de ocorrência de erro humano para o cenário analisado. O resultado da pesquisa demonstra qualitativa e quantitativamente quais fatores exerceram mais influência sobre o desempenho humano para esse cenário. Verificou-se que ações para melhoria dos níveis de qualidade dos fatores de desempenho avaliados negativamente, reduzem significativamente a probabilidade de ocorrência de erro humano. Com a determinação da probabilidade de erro humano e dos fatores que exercem influência sobre o operador para sua ocorrência, esta metodologia poderá ser aplicada como ferramenta adicional de gestão do processo de prevenção de falhas humanas e aumento da confiabilidade do setor elétrico. / Due to the large proportion of human failures in relation to the total number of failures, the restrictions in the supply of electric power and the history of human failures in recent years in the Brazilian electricity system, human reliability is relevant for the electric sector to increase the reliability and mitigation of the occurrence of power outages to consumers. In this context, this work aims to apply an existing methodology to analyze a probability of occurrence of human failure in an electric power substation. It addresses the subject initially by reviewing the evolution of the scenario of human failings, from the period of the Cold War (1945 to 1989), when the first studies were carried out, to date, to contextualize the need to update knowledge about human reliability. The theoretical framework supported the compile the concepts of the various methods used to perform the human reliability analysis and the factors that influence the performance of the operator in the execution of the tasks. A table that compares the more relevant methods presents the advantages and disadvantages of each one. Afterwards, the methodology for analysis of human reliability is presented, with the definition of the critical scenario, analysis of the factors that influence the performance of the operators, and the structuring and analysis of the holistic decision tree with the possible probability of occurrence of human errors. The results of its application in a substation of the electric sector located in the State of Mato Grosso indicated an initial probability of occurrence of human error for the analyzed scenario. The results of the research demonstrate qualitatively and quantitatively which are the factors that exerted the most influence on human performance for the scenario. Actions to improve the quality levels of the performance factors evaluated negatively reduce significantly the probability of occurrence of human error. With the determination of the probability of human error and which are the factors that influence the operator for its occurrence, this methodology can be an additional tool to manage the process of human error prevention and increase the reliability of the electric power system.

Em virtude da grande proporção das falhas humanas em relação ao número total de falhas, dos gargalos de fornecimento de energia elétrica e do histórico de falhas humanas ocorridas nos últimos anos no sistema elétrico brasileiro, a análise da confiabilidade humana é relevante para o setor elétrico para o aumento da confiabilidade e mitigação da ocorrência de corte de fornecimento de energia aos consumidores. Nesse contexto, esse trabalho objetiva aplicar uma metodologia existente para analisar a probabilidade de ocorrência de falha humana em uma subestação de energia elétrica. Aborda o assunto inicialmente revisando a evolução do cenário de falhas humanas, desde o período da Guerra Fria (1945 a 1989), quando se realizaram os primeiros estudos, até o atual momento, para contextualizar a necessidade de atualização dos conhecimentos sobre confiabilidade humana. No referencial teórico, compilaram-se as conceituações dos diversos métodos utilizados para realização da análise da confiabilidade humana e os fatores que exercem influência sobre o desempenho do operador na execução das tarefas. Elaborou-se uma tabela com o objetivo de propiciar a comparação entre os diversos métodos com suas vantagens e desvantagens. Na sequência, faz-se a apresentação da metodologia para análise da confiabilidade humana, com a definição do cenário crítico, análise dos fatores que exercem influência sobre o desempenho dos operadores e estruturação e análise da árvore de decisão holística com os possíveis valores de probabilidade de ocorrência de erros humanos. Os resultados de sua aplicação em uma subestação do setor elétrico localizada no Estado de Mato Grosso indicaram um valor inicial de probabilidade de ocorrência de erro humano para o cenário analisado. O resultado da pesquisa demonstra qualitativa e quantitativamente quais fatores exerceram mais influência sobre o desempenho humano para esse cenário. Verificou-se que ações para melhoria dos níveis de qualidade dos fatores de desempenho avaliados negativamente, reduzem significativamente a probabilidade de ocorrência de erro humano. Com a determinação da probabilidade de erro humano e dos fatores que exercem influência sobre o operador para sua ocorrência, esta metodologia poderá ser aplicada como ferramenta adicional de gestão do processo de prevenção de falhas humanas e aumento da confiabilidade do setor elétrico. / Due to the large proportion of human failures in relation to the total number of failures, the restrictions in the supply of electric power and the history of human failures in recent years in the Brazilian electricity system, human reliability is relevant for the electric sector to increase the reliability and mitigation of the occurrence of power outages to consumers. In this context, this work aims to apply an existing methodology to analyze a probability of occurrence of human failure in an electric power substation. It addresses the subject initially by reviewing the evolution of the scenario of human failings, from the period of the Cold War (1945 to 1989), when the first studies were carried out, to date, to contextualize the need to update knowledge about human reliability. The theoretical framework supported the compile the concepts of the various methods used to perform the human reliability analysis and the factors that influence the performance of the operator in the execution of the tasks. A table that compares the more relevant methods presents the advantages and disadvantages of each one. Afterwards, the methodology for analysis of human reliability is presented, with the definition of the critical scenario, analysis of the factors that influence the performance of the operators, and the structuring and analysis of the holistic decision tree with the possible probability of occurrence of human errors. The results of its application in a substation of the electric sector located in the State of Mato Grosso indicated an initial probability of occurrence of human error for the analyzed scenario. The results of the research demonstrate qualitatively and quantitatively which are the factors that exerted the most influence on human performance for the scenario. Actions to improve the quality levels of the performance factors evaluated negatively reduce significantly the probability of occurrence of human error. With the determination of the probability of human error and which are the factors that influence the operator for its occurrence, this methodology can be an additional tool to manage the process of human error prevention and increase the reliability of the electric power system.

IEC 61850 standards are the global standard for communication in substations. It is gaining popularity in power substation automation and will dominate the future substation automation and protection system design. The standards provide new approaches for protection, control and metering function via communication. The secondary circuits in substation are simplified significantly and the massive hardwired cables are replaced by the high-speed process bus which transmit analogue and binary signals with Ethernet messages. However, the conformity of a device with the standards does not necessarily guarantee the interoperability with devices from different manufacturers. The use of devices compatible with IEC 61850 standards presents a challenge to many system integrators, especially due to lack of familiarity with features such as Generic Object Oriented Substation Event (GOOSE), reporting, Sampled Values and the need for system redundancy. To facilitate a smooth implementation, all the features and the data exchanges between devices need to be tested to ensure the system operates correctly. This project was carried out to study the protection performance of secondary schemes with IEC 61850 process bus architecture in substation. The tests were performed including current differential protection and distance protection on a transmission substation of the type used in the UK on the transmission network. The protection schemes were tested under IEC 61850 environment with multi-vendor IEDs like Alstom MiCOM IEDs, NARI IEDs with the OMICRON test set. More tests were carried out to verify the interoperability and the performance of time-critical messages were evaluated under different network architectures. The impact of the background traffic on these two messages was investigated and the response of the IEDs when the Sampled Values packets were lost or overwritten was recorded and provided to utility as a reference. This project also presented a technique to assess the performance of Merging Units from different manufacturers, when operating with Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) performing a distance protection function. The performance of the process bus with parallel redundancy protocol is evaluated using a closed loop approach involving a Real Time Digital Simulator. The results indicate that protection using process bus communication is feasible, and meets grid code requirements when implemented with commercially available products. It was found that process bus operation is robust, even with network traffic conditions far beyond what would be experienced in an active substation.

[pt] T.G. será a maior subestação do sistema 1, localizada em um bairro do Rio de Janeiro e está prevista para, em sua etapa definitiva, ter uma potência de 4800 MVA com quatro bancos de transformadores de 500kv/138kV/13,8kV com 600 MVA nominais cada um. Será alimentada por uma linha de transmissão com 2 circuitos de 500 KV através da subestação AD (do sistema 2) tendo ainda 2 linhas de 500 KV alimentando outra subestação do sistema 1 e mais 21 linhas de 138 KV alimentando outras subestações do sistema 1. Devido ao problema de espaço necessário para uma subestação convencional do porte de T.G., optou-se pela solução de utilizar equipamentos blindados em SF6 tanto para o 500KV quanto para o 138 KV. A subestação está prevista para entrar em operação em outubro de 1976, e devido a configuração do sistema foi demonstrado pelos estudos de fluxo de potência a necessidade de controle de reativos em T.G. para suprir a grande demanda do sistema de transmissão que alimenta o sistema 1. Os requisitos de VAR do sistema 1 são consideravelmente sensíveis ao fator de potência das cargas. Nos estudos realizados adotou-se fator de potência 0,98. Com o presente estudo demonstra-se que para o período de 1976 a 1980 pode-se evitar o uso de compensadores síncronos em T.G. pela utilização de taps nos transformadores de T.G., o que permitiria não só reduzir o fluxo de reativos como um melhor controle de tensão. Para o período após 1980 será necessário a instalação de dois compensadores síncronos de 200 MVAr cada nos terciários dos transformadores de T.G., sendo importante fizar que a consideração de cargas com fator de potência 0,98 fazem considerável diferença para a determinação da capacidade nominal dos compensadores síncronos em T.G. A principal característica do sistema é que os compensadores terão de 80% a 100% de sua capacidade suprindo o sistema de transmissão que alimenta o sistema 1. justamente devido a essa particularidade tornou-se importante a escolha de impedância dos transformadores de modo a reduzir ao mínimo possível as perdas reativas no próprio transformador. A escolha da impedância dos transformadores ficou limitada ao nível máximo de curto circuito das subestações de 138KV que interligam o sistema 1 com T.G. Com a instalação dos compensadores em T.G. consegue-se ainda controlar a tensão do sistema adequadamente bem como deixar o sistema 1 relativamente independente do ponto de vista do controle de reativos. / [en] T.G substation will be the largest substation os system 1, being located at a section in Rio de Janeiro city. It will have 4800 MVA in his final stage, with four 600 MVA 500KV/138KV/13,8KV transformers banks, two 500KV incoming transmission lines from A.D. substation (system 2), two 500 KV lines to other system 1 substation and twenty one 138 KV lines to system 1 substations. Due to space problems, the 500 KV and 138 KV swtchgear will be of SF6 type. The substation will be energized in october, 1976 and due to systemconfiguration and demonstrated by load flow studies, it will be necessary to instal VAR control at T.G. to minimize the transmission system VAR requirements. These requirements of system 1 are sensitive to load representation. The assumption of. 98 power factor loads maker considerable difference to the synchronous condenser rating at T.G. One of the goals of this work, is to show that between 1976 and 1980, synchronous condensers are not necessary, its role being performed by tap changers installed in the T.G. transformers. After 1980 the instalation of two synchronous condensers of 200 MVar at the T.G. transformers tertiary will be necessary. It is important to realize that 80% to 100% of condensers capacity is use to supply the transmission system. The use of transformers with lower impedances will be important to minimize VAR losses at transformers, but will increase three phase short circuit level at 138 KV and the tertiary systems. With synchronous condensers installation it will be possible to control system voltage and system 1 should be relatively independent from VAR control althoug the cost of supplyng VAR`s to the incoming transmission networks.

The PMU has been found to carry great deal of value for applications in the wide area monitoring of power systems. Historically, deployment of these devices has been limited by the prohibitive cost of the device itself. Therefore, the objective of the conventional optimal PMU placement problem is to find the minimum number devices, which if carefully placed throughout the network, either maximize observability or completely observe subject to different constraints. Now due to improved technology and digital relays serving a dual use as relay & PMU, the cost of the PMU device itself is not the largest portion of the deployment cost, but rather the substation installation. In a recently completed large-scale deployment of PMUs on the EHV network, Virginia Electric & Power Company (VEPCO) has found this to be so. The assumption then becomes that if construction work is done in a substation, enough PMU devices will be placed such that everything at that substation is measured. This thesis presents a technique proposed to minimize the number of substation installations thus indirectly minimizing the synchrophasor deployment costs. Also presented is a brief history of the PMU and its applications along with the conventional Optimal PMU placement problem and the scope for expanding this work. / Master of Science

An entirely digital system is presented which has several benefits as compared to the systems that are deployed currently. Utilizing digital capabilities to a much greater extent than is currently used within the power system allows for various improvements upon the current system. One such improvement is the ease of configuring and using the system. Each device can easily alter its functionality through a user interface, and the addition of devices is as easy as plugging it in. Additionally, the burden on the transformer due to the increase in the number of devices is nullified. The information remains accurate and unchanged, even when new devices are added to the system. The entire system conforms to the IEC 61850 standard, such that it adheres to the requirements of the actual power system. / Master of Science