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[pt] T.G. será a maior subestação do sistema 1, localizada em um bairro do Rio de Janeiro e está prevista para, em sua etapa definitiva, ter uma potência de 4800 MVA com quatro bancos de transformadores de 500kv/138kV/13,8kV com 600 MVA nominais cada um. Será alimentada por uma linha de transmissão com 2 circuitos de 500 KV através da subestação AD (do sistema 2) tendo ainda 2 linhas de 500 KV alimentando outra subestação do sistema 1 e mais 21 linhas de 138 KV alimentando outras subestações do sistema 1. Devido ao problema de espaço necessário para uma subestação convencional do porte de T.G., optou-se pela solução de utilizar equipamentos blindados em SF6 tanto para o 500KV quanto para o 138 KV. A subestação está prevista para entrar em operação em outubro de 1976, e devido a configuração do sistema foi demonstrado pelos estudos de fluxo de potência a necessidade de controle de reativos em T.G. para suprir a grande demanda do sistema de transmissão que alimenta o sistema 1. Os requisitos de VAR do sistema 1 são consideravelmente sensíveis ao fator de potência das cargas. Nos estudos realizados adotou-se fator de potência 0,98. Com o presente estudo demonstra-se que para o período de 1976 a 1980 pode-se evitar o uso de compensadores síncronos em T.G. pela utilização de taps nos transformadores de T.G., o que permitiria não só reduzir o fluxo de reativos como um melhor controle de tensão. Para o período após 1980 será necessário a instalação de dois compensadores síncronos de 200 MVAr cada nos terciários dos transformadores de T.G., sendo importante fizar que a consideração de cargas com fator de potência 0,98 fazem considerável diferença para a determinação da capacidade nominal dos compensadores síncronos em T.G. A principal característica do sistema é que os compensadores terão de 80% a 100% de sua capacidade suprindo o sistema de transmissão que alimenta o sistema 1. justamente devido a essa particularidade tornou-se importante a escolha de impedância dos transformadores de modo a reduzir ao mínimo possível as perdas reativas no próprio transformador. A escolha da impedância dos transformadores ficou limitada ao nível máximo de curto circuito das subestações de 138KV que interligam o sistema 1 com T.G. Com a instalação dos compensadores em T.G. consegue-se ainda controlar a tensão do sistema adequadamente bem como deixar o sistema 1 relativamente independente do ponto de vista do controle de reativos. / [en] T.G substation will be the largest substation os system 1, being located at a section in Rio de Janeiro city. It will have 4800 MVA in his final stage, with four 600 MVA 500KV/138KV/13,8KV transformers banks, two 500KV incoming transmission lines from A.D. substation (system 2), two 500 KV lines to other system 1 substation and twenty one 138 KV lines to system 1 substations. Due to space problems, the 500 KV and 138 KV swtchgear will be of SF6 type. The substation will be energized in october, 1976 and due to systemconfiguration and demonstrated by load flow studies, it will be necessary to instal VAR control at T.G. to minimize the transmission system VAR requirements. These requirements of system 1 are sensitive to load representation. The assumption of. 98 power factor loads maker considerable difference to the synchronous condenser rating at T.G. One of the goals of this work, is to show that between 1976 and 1980, synchronous condensers are not necessary, its role being performed by tap changers installed in the T.G. transformers. After 1980 the instalation of two synchronous condensers of 200 MVar at the T.G. transformers tertiary will be necessary. It is important to realize that 80% to 100% of condensers capacity is use to supply the transmission system. The use of transformers with lower impedances will be important to minimize VAR losses at transformers, but will increase three phase short circuit level at 138 KV and the tertiary systems. With synchronous condensers installation it will be possible to control system voltage and system 1 should be relatively independent from VAR control althoug the cost of supplyng VAR`s to the incoming transmission networks.

This dissertation presents dynamic reactive power control of isolated power systems. Isolated systems include MicroGrids in islanded mode, shipboard power systems operating offshore, or any other power system operating in islanded mode intentionally or due to a fault. Isolated power systems experience fast transients due to lack of an infinite bus capable of dictating the voltage and frequency reference. This dissertation only focuses on reactive control of islanded MicroGrids and AC/DC shipboard power systems. The problem is tackled using a Model Predictive Control (MPC) method, which uses a simplified model of the system to predict the voltage behavior of the system in future. The MPC method minimizes the voltage deviation of the predicted bus voltage; therefore, it is inherently robust and stable. In other words, this method can easily predict the behavior of the system and take necessary control actions to avoid instability. Further, this method is capable of reaching a smooth voltage profile and rejecting possible disturbances in the system. The studied MicroGrids in this dissertation integrate intermittent distributed energy resources such as wind and solar generators. These non-dispatchable sources add to the uncertainty of the system and make voltage and reactive control more challenging. The model predictive controller uses the capability of these sources and coordinates them dynamically to achieve the voltage goals of the controller. The MPC controller is implemented online in a closed control loop, which means it is self-correcting with the feedback it receives from the system.

The main topic of this research is the efficient operation of a modernized distribution grid from both the customer side and utility side. For the customer side, this dissertation discusses the planning and operation of a customer with multiple demand response programs, energy storage systems and distributed generators; for the utility side, this dissertation addresses the implementation and assessment of voltage/VAR control and conservation voltage reduction in a distribution grid with distributed generators. The objectives of this research are as follows: (1) to develop methods to assist customers to select appropriate demand response programs considering the integration of energy storage systems and DGs, and perform corresponding energy management including dispatches of loads, energy storage systems, and DGs; (2) to develop stochastic voltage/VAR control techniques for distribution grids with renewable DGs; (3) to develop optimization and validation methods for the planning of integration of renewable DGs to assist the implementation of voltage/VAR control; and (4) to develop techniques to assess load-reduction effects of voltage/VAR control and conservation voltage reduction. In this dissertation, a two-stage co-optimization method for the planning and energy management of a customer with demand response programs is proposed. The first level is to optimally select suitable demand response programs to join and integrate batteries, and the second level is to schedule the dispatches of loads, batteries and fossil-fired backup generators. The proposed method considers various demand response programs, demand scenarios and customer types. It can provide guidance to a customer to make the most beneficial decisions in an electricity market with multiple demand response programs. For the implementation of voltage/VAR control, this dissertation proposes a stochastic rolling horizon optimization-based method to conduct optimal dispatches of voltage/VAR control devices such as on-load tap changers and capacitor banks. The uncertainties of renewable DG output are taken into account by the stochastic formulation and the generated scenarios. The exponential load models are applied to capture the load behaviors of various types of customers. A new method to simultaneously consider the integration of DGs and the implementation of voltage/VAR control is also developed. The proposed method includes both solution and validation stages. The planning problem is formulated as a bi-level stochastic program. The solution stage is based on sample average approximation (SAA), and the validation stage is based on multiple replication procedure (MRP) to test the robustness of the sample average approximation solutions of the stochastic program. This research applies big data-driven analytics and load modeling techniques to propose two novel methodologies to assess the load-reduction effects of conservation voltage reduction. The proposed methods can be used to assist utilities to select preferable feeders to implement conservation voltage reduction.

Distribution system voltage and VAR control (VVC) is a technique that combines conservation voltage reduction and reactive power compensation to operate a distribution system at its optimal conditions. Coordinated VVC can provide major economic benefits for distribution utilities. Incorporating distributed generation (DG) to VVC can improve the system efficiency and reliability. The first part of this dissertation introduces a direct optimization formulation for VVC with DG. The control is formulated as a mixed integer non-linear programming (MINLP) problem. The formulation is based on a three-phase power flow with accurate component models. The VVC problem is solved with a state of the art open-source academic solver utilizing an outer approximation algorithm. Applying the approach to several test feeders, including IEEE 13-node and 37-node radial test feeders, with variable load demand and DG generation, validates the proposed control. Incorporating renewable energy can provide major benefits for efficient operation of the distribution systems. However, when the number of renewables increases the system control becomes more complex. Renewable resources, particularly wind and solar, are often highly intermittent. The varying power output can cause significant fluctuations in feeder voltages. Traditional feeder controls are often too slow to react to these fast fluctuations. DG units providing reactive power compensation they can be utilized in supplying voltage support when fluctuations in generation occur. The second part of this dissertation focuses on two new approaches for dual-layer VVC. In these approaches the VVC is divided into two control layers, slow and fast. The slow control obtains optimal voltage profile and set points for the distribution control. The fast control layer is utilized to maintain the optimal voltage profile when the generation or loading suddenly changes. The MINLP based VVC formulation is utilized as the slow control. Both local reactive power control of DG and coordinated quadratic programming (QP) based reactive power control is considered as the fast control approaches. The effectiveness of these approaches is studied with test feeders, utility load data, and fast-varying solar irradiance data. The simulation results indicate that both methods achieve good results for VVC with DG.

A smart grid cost/benefit analysis answers a series of economic questions that address the incremental benefits of each stage or decision point. Each stage of the economic analysis provides information about the incremental benefits of that stage with respect to the previous stage. With this approach stages that provide little or no economic benefits can be identified. In this study there are series of applications,-including quasi-steady state power flows over time-varying loads and costs of service, Monte Carlo simulations, reconfiguration for restoration, and coordinated control - that are used to evaluate the cost-benefits of a series of smart grid investments. In the electric power system planning process, engineers seek to identify the most cost-effective means of serving the load within reliability and power quality criteria. In order to accurately assess the cost of a given project, the feeder losses must be calculated. In the past, the feeder losses were estimated based upon the peak load and a calculated load factor for the year. The cost of these losses would then be calculated based upon an expected, fixed per-kWh generation cost. This dissertation presents a more accurate means of calculating the cost of losses, using hourly feeder load information and time-varying electric energy cost data. The work here attempts to quantify the improvement in high accuracy and presents an example where the economic evaluation of a planning project requires the more accurate loss calculation. Smart grid investments can also affect response to equipment failures where there are two types of responses to consider -blue-sky day and storm. Storm response and power restoration can be very expensive for electric utilities. The deployment of automated switches can benefit the utility by decreasing storm restoration hours. The automated switches also improve system reliably by decreasing customer interruption duration. In this dissertation a Monte Carlo simulation is used to mimic storm equipment failure events, followed by reconfiguration for restoration and power flow evaluations. The Monte Carlo simulation is driven by actual storm statistics taken from 89 different storms, where equipment failure rates are time varying. The customer outage status and durations are examined. Changes in reliability for the system with and without automated switching devices are investigated. Time varying coordinated control of Conservation Voltage Reduction (CVR) is implemented. The coordinated control runs in the control center and makes use of measurements from throughout the system to determine control settings that move the system toward optimum performance as the load varies. The coordinated control provides set points to local controllers. A major difference between the coordinated control and local control is the set points provided by the coordinated control are time varying. Reduction of energy and losses of coordinated control are compared with local control. Also eliminating low voltage problems with coordinated control are addressed. An overall economic study is implemented in the final stage of the work. A series of five evaluations of the economic benefits of smart grid automation investments are investigated. Here benefits that can be quantified in terms of dollar savings are considered here referred to as "hard dollar" benefits. Smart Grid investment evaluations to be considered include investments in improved efficiency, more cost effective use of existing system capacity with automated switches, and coordinated control of capacitor banks and voltage regulators. These Smart Grid evaluations are sequentially ordered, resulting in a series of incremental hard dollar benefits. Hard dollar benefits come from improved efficiency, delaying large capital equipment investments, shortened storm restoration times, and reduced customer energy use. The evaluation shows that when time varying loads are considered in the design, investments in automation can improve performance and significantly lower costs resulting in "hard dollar" savings. / Ph. D.

Este trabalho analisa a necessidade da aplicação dos compensadores estáticos de reativos em sistemas elétricos industriais e em sistemas de potência. Vários tipos de compensadores de reativos são apresentados e também é feita uma comparação entre eles. O trabalho está centralizado no estudo dos compensadores estáticos tiristorisados, principalmente o Reator Controlado a Tiristores (RCT) e o Capacitor Chaveado a Tiristores (CCT). São discutidas as influências de alguns parâmetros nas formas de onda do RCT. É feita a dedução das equações das componentes harmônicas de corrente e tensão do RCT. São também analisados os efeitos das harmônicas e os meios de atenuá-las, de modo a mantê-las dentro de níveis razoáveis. Modelos para a simulação de um RCT, para vários tipos de fenômenos em circuitos monofásicos e trifásicos, são apresentados. São Mostrados gráficos e tabelas de algumas simulações utilizando o programa CSMP (Continuous System Modeling Program) e um programa desenvolvido ciclo a ciclo, utilizando o método passo a passo. As simulações permitem avaliar com razoável precisão o comportamento do RCT associado a um capacitor fixo. Sugestões de estudos afins são apresentadas no final do trabalho. / This work analyses the need of using Var systems in industrial and in power electric systems. Various types of VAr systems are presented and also a comparison among them is done. The work is centralized in the study of thyristor static VAr systems. The thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) and the thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) are analysed in more details. Parametric influences in the wave forms of TCR are discussed. TCR voltage and current harmonic equations are deduced. Harmonic effects and also the methods of producing their attenuation are analysed. TCR simulation models for multiple types of phenomena in one phase and three phase circuits are presented. Some graphics and tables using the CSMP (Continuous System Modeling Program), and a cycle by cycle program that uses the step method are showed. The simulations can evaluate with a reasonable precision the behavior of a TCR with a fixed capacitor (FC). Suggestions of other studies are presented at the end of the work.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo comparar o desempenho de diferentes metaheurísticas bio-inspiradas aplicadas à resolução de problemas de otimização multiobjetivo do controle de tensão e reativos, ou controle Volt/VAr, em redes elétricas inteligentes. Entre os algoritmos implementados estão o algoritmo genético, o algoritmo memético, a otimização por colônia de formigas, a otimização por enxame de partículas e o strength pareto evolutionary algorithm (SPEA2). Aplicações dos algoritmos à resolução de problemas de otimização do controle Volt/VAr, em redes de distribuição de energia elétrica com dimensões reais, são utilizadas para comparação de seus indicadores de desempenho. A avaliação é feita tanto em relação à velocidade de busca quanto em relação à qualidade da solução encontrada. Os algoritmos mostraram resultados promissores para aplicação a redes de distribuição com dimensões reais, encontrando soluções de qualidade em tempos de busca aceitáveis. Parte deste desempenho se dá pelos métodos meta-heurísticos, parte por conta da modelagem adotada no processo de otimização. / The present work aims at comparing the performance of different bio-inspired metaheuristics applied to the Volt/VAr control multiobjective optimization problem in smart grids. Among the algorithms implemented are the genetic algorithm, the memetic algorithm, ant colony optimization, particle swarm optimization and the strength pareto evolutionary algorithm (SPEA2). Applications of the algorithms to solve Volt/VAr control optimization problems in distribution networks with real dimensions are used to compare their performance indicators. The evaluation is done both in relation to the search speed and in relation to the quality of the solution found. The promising results show that the algorithms are applicable to distribution networks with real dimensions, finding quality solutions in acceptable search times. This performance is obtained due to both the metaheuristic methods, and the modeling adopted in the optimization process.

Este trabalho analisa a necessidade da aplicação dos compensadores estáticos de reativos em sistemas elétricos industriais e em sistemas de potência. Vários tipos de compensadores de reativos são apresentados e também é feita uma comparação entre eles. O trabalho está centralizado no estudo dos compensadores estáticos tiristorisados, principalmente o Reator Controlado a Tiristores (RCT) e o Capacitor Chaveado a Tiristores (CCT). São discutidas as influências de alguns parâmetros nas formas de onda do RCT. É feita a dedução das equações das componentes harmônicas de corrente e tensão do RCT. São também analisados os efeitos das harmônicas e os meios de atenuá-las, de modo a mantê-las dentro de níveis razoáveis. Modelos para a simulação de um RCT, para vários tipos de fenômenos em circuitos monofásicos e trifásicos, são apresentados. São Mostrados gráficos e tabelas de algumas simulações utilizando o programa CSMP (Continuous System Modeling Program) e um programa desenvolvido ciclo a ciclo, utilizando o método passo a passo. As simulações permitem avaliar com razoável precisão o comportamento do RCT associado a um capacitor fixo. Sugestões de estudos afins são apresentadas no final do trabalho. / This work analyses the need of using Var systems in industrial and in power electric systems. Various types of VAr systems are presented and also a comparison among them is done. The work is centralized in the study of thyristor static VAr systems. The thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) and the thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) are analysed in more details. Parametric influences in the wave forms of TCR are discussed. TCR voltage and current harmonic equations are deduced. Harmonic effects and also the methods of producing their attenuation are analysed. TCR simulation models for multiple types of phenomena in one phase and three phase circuits are presented. Some graphics and tables using the CSMP (Continuous System Modeling Program), and a cycle by cycle program that uses the step method are showed. The simulations can evaluate with a reasonable precision the behavior of a TCR with a fixed capacitor (FC). Suggestions of other studies are presented at the end of the work.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo comparar o desempenho de diferentes metaheurísticas bio-inspiradas aplicadas à resolução de problemas de otimização multiobjetivo do controle de tensão e reativos, ou controle Volt/VAr, em redes elétricas inteligentes. Entre os algoritmos implementados estão o algoritmo genético, o algoritmo memético, a otimização por colônia de formigas, a otimização por enxame de partículas e o strength pareto evolutionary algorithm (SPEA2). Aplicações dos algoritmos à resolução de problemas de otimização do controle Volt/VAr, em redes de distribuição de energia elétrica com dimensões reais, são utilizadas para comparação de seus indicadores de desempenho. A avaliação é feita tanto em relação à velocidade de busca quanto em relação à qualidade da solução encontrada. Os algoritmos mostraram resultados promissores para aplicação a redes de distribuição com dimensões reais, encontrando soluções de qualidade em tempos de busca aceitáveis. Parte deste desempenho se dá pelos métodos meta-heurísticos, parte por conta da modelagem adotada no processo de otimização. / The present work aims at comparing the performance of different bio-inspired metaheuristics applied to the Volt/VAr control multiobjective optimization problem in smart grids. Among the algorithms implemented are the genetic algorithm, the memetic algorithm, ant colony optimization, particle swarm optimization and the strength pareto evolutionary algorithm (SPEA2). Applications of the algorithms to solve Volt/VAr control optimization problems in distribution networks with real dimensions are used to compare their performance indicators. The evaluation is done both in relation to the search speed and in relation to the quality of the solution found. The promising results show that the algorithms are applicable to distribution networks with real dimensions, finding quality solutions in acceptable search times. This performance is obtained due to both the metaheuristic methods, and the modeling adopted in the optimization process.