abstract: Dynamic loading is the term used for one way of optimally loading a transformer. Dynamic loading means the utility takes into account the thermal time constant of the transformer along with the cooling mode transitions, loading profile and ambient temperature when determining the time-varying loading capability of a transformer. Knowing the maximum dynamic loading rating can increase utilization of the transformer while not reducing life-expectancy, delaying the replacement of the transformer. This document presents the progress on the transformer dynamic loading project sponsored by Salt River Project (SRP). A software application which performs dynamic loading for substation distribution transformers with appropriate transformer thermal models is developed in this project. Two kinds of thermal hottest-spot temperature (HST) and top-oil temperature (TOT) models that will be used in the application--the ASU HST/TOT models and the ANSI models--are presented. Brief validations of the ASU models are presented, showing that the ASU models are accurate in simulating the thermal processes of the transformers. For this production grade application, both the ANSI and the ASU models are built and tested to select the most appropriate models to be used in the dynamic loading calculations. An existing application to build and select the TOT model was used as a starting point for the enhancements developed in this work. These enhancements include:  Adding the ability to develop HST models to the existing application,  Adding metrics to evaluate the models accuracy and selecting which model will be used in dynamic loading calculation  Adding the capability to perform dynamic loading calculations,  Production of a maximum dynamic load profile that the transformer can tolerate without acceleration of the insulation aging,  Provide suitable output (plots and text) for the results of the dynamic loading calculation. Other challenges discussed include: modification to the input data format, data-quality control, cooling mode estimation. Efforts to overcome these challenges are discussed in this work. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Electrical Engineering 2011

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / Este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento e avaliaÃÃo de um sistema de monitoramento com tecnologia Java e Bluetooth para o auxilio no gerenciamento da condiÃÃo de transformadores de distribuiÃÃo a partir de modelos tÃrmicos. Sabe-se que monitorar a condiÃÃo dos transformadores tem sido objeto de preocupaÃÃo no que diz respeito a evitar as perdas econÃmicas causadas por falhas no equipamento e a consequente descontinuidade do serviÃo. à possÃvel, atravÃs da gestÃo do sistema: maximizar a vida Ãtil dos equipamentos monitorados; melhorar a confiabilidade da rede; reduzir os custos de manutenÃÃo. AtravÃs do levantamento bibliogrÃfico de sistemas de monitoramento atuais, de suas funcionalidades, em funÃÃo de recentes tecnologias de software e hardware, e do estudo de modelos tÃrmicos aplicados a transformadores, foi desenvolvido um sistema de coleta de dados e uma interface para anÃlise de dados. Este trabalho traz uma contribuiÃÃo para o desenvolvimento desses sistemas, propondo o uso de dispositivos mÃveis como uma estratÃgia economicamente viÃvel para coletar dados de transformadores de distribuiÃÃo, e a utilizaÃÃo dos dados coletados por estes dispositivos para gerar modelos tÃrmicos (das temperaturas do topo do Ãleo e do ponto quente) que permitam: (i) estabelecer limites mÃximos de carga para o equipamento, e (ii) estimar sua perda de vida Ãtil. Estas informaÃÃes fornecidas pelo sistema de monitoramento proposto devem servir como suporte à implementaÃÃo de planos de aÃÃo da concessionÃria de energia elÃtrica para: (i) a eventual substituiÃÃo de equipamentos, (ii) a adequaÃÃo na distribuiÃÃo das cargas, (iii) a priorizaÃÃo no caso de necessidade de atuaÃÃo do sistema de proteÃÃo. / This paper presents the development and evaluation of a monitoring system with Bluetooth and Java technology to aid managing the condition of distribution transformers through thermal models. It is well known that monitor the condition of transformers has been the subject of concern in relation to avoid economic losses caused by equipment failure. It is possible, through the system management: (i) maximize the life time of the monitored equipment, (ii) improve the reliability of the electrical grid and (iii) reduce its maintenance costs. Through a bibliographical survey of transformer condition monitoring systems and study of thermal models applied to transformers, was developed a system for data acquisition and an interface for data analysis. This work brings a contribution to the development of these systems, proposing the use of mobile devices as a viable strategy to collect data of distribution transformers and using data collected by those devices for generating thermal models (to estimate top-oil and hotspot temperature) that will let us: (i) establish maximum load for the equipment, and (ii) estimate the loss of life. The information provided by the condition monitoring system proposed should serve as support to electric utility company to implement action plans to help possible exchange of equipment, do a more balanced load in their distribution transformers and help prioritizing, in case of any necessary actuation of the system protection.

This master thesis deals with the understanding of the secondary air system of athree spool turbofan. The main purpose is the creation of secondary air systemand thermal models to evaluate the behavior of this kind of engine architectureand estimate the pros and cons in comparison with a typical two spool turbofan. Afinite element model of the secondary air system of the engine has been designedbased on the experience of typical jet engines manufactured by Snecma. Theinner thermodynamic pattern and mass flow rates of the engine were obtained.Some local improvements were then made by making analogies with the enginesmanufactured by Snecma. After having communicated the results to theperformance unit to get updates thermodynamic cycles, a quite reliable model wasobtained and can be used as a reference for further studies of this kind of engineat Snecma.

The thermal structure of subduction zones depends on the age-controlled thermal state of the subducting slab and mantle wedge flow. Observations indicate that the shallow part of the forearc mantle wedge is stagnant and the slab-mantle interface is weakened. In this dissertation, the role of the interface strength in controlling mantle wedge flow, thermal structure, and a wide range of subduction zone processes is investigated through two-dimensional finite-element modelling and a global synthesis of geological and geophysical observations. The model reveals that the strong temperature-dependence of the mantle strength always results in full slab-mantle decoupling along the weakened part of the interface and hence complete stagnation of the overlying mantle. The interface immediately downdip of the zone of decoupling is fully coupled, and the overlying mantle is driven to flow at a rate compatible with the subduction rate. The sharpness of the transition from decoupling to coupling depends on the rheology assumed and increases with the nonlinearity of the flow system. This bimodal behaviour of the wedge flow gives rise to a strong thermal contrast between the cold stagnant and hot flowing parts of the mantle wedge. The maximum depth of decoupling (MDD) thus dictates the thermal regime of the forearc. Observed surface heat flow patterns and petrologically and geochemically estimated mantle wedge temperatures beneath the volcanic arc require an MDD of 70-80 km in most, if not all, subduction zones regardless of their thermal regime of the slab. The common MDD of 70-80 km explains the observed systematic variations of the petrologic, seismological, and volcanic processes with the thermal state of the slab and thus explains the rich diversity of subduction zones in a unified fashion. Models for warm-slab subduction zones such as Cascadia and Nankai predict shallow dehydration of the slab beneath the cold stagnant part of the mantle wedge, which provides ample fluid for mantle wedge serpentinization in the forearc but little fluid for melt generation beneath the arc. In contrast, models for colder-slab subduction zones such as NE Japan and Kamchatka predict deeper dehydration, which provides greater fluid supply for melt generation beneath the arc and allows deeper occurrence of intraslab earthquakes but less fluid for forearc mantle wedge serpentinization. The common MDD also explains the intriguing uniform configuration of subduction zones, that is, the volcanic arc always tends to be situated where the slab is at about 100 km depth. The sudden onset of mantle wedge flow downdip of the common MDD overshadows the thermal effect of the slab, and the resultant thermal field and slab dehydration control the location of the volcanic arc. The recognition of the fundamental importance of the MDD has important implications to the study of geodynamics and earthquake hazard in subduction zones.

La simulation détaillée au niveau carte de ces nouveaux types de packages est quasiment impossible du fait de la limitation des moyens de calculs actuels. En outre, dans la plupart des cas de conception électronique, seule l’estimation des températures en quelques points est intéressante. Une étude détaillée au niveau composant n’est pas nécessairement pertinente. Il faut donc un compromis entre faisabilité et/ou rapidité des calculs et une précision sur les paramètres importants. Une alternative est de trouver des modèles comportementaux équivalents aux modèles détaillés, capable de reproduire son comportement thermique aux points cruciaux. C’est dans cette optique que le projet européen DELPHI (Development of libraries of physical models of electronic components for an integrated design environment) a été initié en 1993. L’objectif de ce projet était de pouvoir générer un modèle compact à partir d’un modèle détaillé d’un composant électronique. Celui-ci a ainsi abouti à une standardisation du processus de génération des modèles mis en oeuvre. Néanmoins, les avancées issues de ce projet sont limitées aux composants mono-puces et à leur comportement thermique en régime permanent. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’avoir une approche multi-échelle de la génération de modèles compacts et leur interaction avec la carte. La modélisation multi-échelle consiste à la génération de modèles mono-puces ou multi-puces et leur réutilisation éventuelle dans des systèmes plus complexes tels que le PCB ou les « System-In-packages ». / This thesis is dedicated to the generation of behavioral thermal model for electronic component having multiple active sensitive chips. This innovative study focuses on the necessary improvements of the concept of steady-state and dynamic compact model in order to elaborate pertinent and accurate modeling practical techniques. To help the electronic designer to early identify the overheated electronic components, the purpose is to generate simplified models, capable to mimic the thermal behavior of sophisticated detailed models. These simplified or compact models using well-known thermal resistances network replicate the thermal path from the most sensitive elements to the external package surfaces and enable to accurately predict their temperatures as well as the case heat flow rates. Preliminary evaluations performed on the popular, plastic Quad Flat-pack No lead package family showed that the simplest network definition, restricted to the heating source and two external surfaces, is always insufficient to properly characterize the thermal response of real device. So our development of steady-state compact thermal model (CTM) for electronic component is based on a process flow defined by the European project DELPHI which was revised by the presented work to address multi-chip components. DELPHI style compact thermal model presents an enlarged node number, especially for the component external surfaces which are divided in a set of relevant areas.

Le moteur de traction ferroviaire est destiné à fonctionner dans de larges gammes de couple/vitesse. L'objectif principal de cette thèse est de développer des méthodes de conception par optimisation de machines électriques pour la traction ferroviaire avec la prise en compte des cycles (missions). Puis, d'incorporer ces méthodes dans un outil informatique. Après une prise en main des modèles électromagnétiques existants et leur transfert dans le langage Matlab, des modèles thermiques transitoires ont été établis et validés par rapport aux mesures expérimentales. À partir de là, la problématique des temps de simulations prohibitifs sur cycles a été mise en évidence et des solutions de réduction de cycles ont été proposées et validées sur les différents types de cycle. Enfin, une approche de conception par optimisation en deux niveaux a été développée. Le premier niveau concerne les variables continues et le second gère les variables discrètes. / The rail traction motor is designed to operate in wide range of torque/speed performance. The main aims of this thesis is to develop methods of designing by optimization electric machines over railway driving cycle. Then, to implement these methods in a usable software. Firstly, existing electromagnetic models were transferred to Matlab and two thermal models were developed and validated by experimental measurements. The use of accurate models for the optimization over à driving cycle is highly time consuming so, after identification of this constraint, some solutions to reduce this time without losing the accuracy were proposed and validated. Finally, multi-level optimization approach has been developed for electric machine design to solve mixed integer problem. This approach takes into account the driving cycle by using the methods of cycle reduction developed during this thesis.

Thermal effects in integrated circuits have increasing impact on chip's lifetime and function. For this reason, the chips must be subjected to electro-thermal simulations prior to the launch of production in order to avoid potential circuit failures. Therefore, in the first part of this diploma thesis these effects and methods of creating thermal models are described. The thesis also explores available tools for electro-thermal simulations and the way these simulators work. In the practical part of the thesis, the operation of electro-thermal simulation in the Eldo tool is verified, a method of automated thermal network creation is proposed and a application for its generation based on the circuit layout is implemented. The results of the electro-thermal simulation with the generated thermal network are compared with the results of the currently used method.

Power and Generator Transformers are important and expensive elements of a power system. Inadvertent failure of Power Transformers would cause long interruption in power supply with consequent loss of reliability and revenue to the supply utilities. The mineral oil impregnated paper, OIP, is an insulation of choice in large power transformers in view of its excellent dielectric and other properties, besides being relatively inexpensive. During the normal working regime of the transformer, the insulation thereof is subjected to various stresses, the more important among them are, electrical, thermal, mechanical and chemical. Each of these stresses, appearing singly, or in combination, would lead to a time variant deterioration in the properties of insulation, called Ageing. This normal and inevitable process of degradation in the several essential properties of the insulation is irreversible, is a non-Markov physico-chemical reaction kinetic process. The speed or the rapidity of insulation deterioration is a very strong function of the magnitude of the stresses and the duration over which they acted. This is further compounded, if the stresses are in synergy. During the processes of ageing, some, or all the vital properties undergo subtle changes, more often, not in step with the duration of time over which the damage has been accumulated. Often, these changes are non monotonic, thus presenting a random or a chaotic picture and understanding the processes leading to eventual failure becomes difficult. But, there is some order in this chaos, in that, the time average of the changes over short intervals of time, seems to indicate some degree of predictability. The status of insulation at any given point in time is assessed by measuring such of those properties as are sensitive to the amount of ageing and comparing it with earlier measurements. This procedure, called the Diagnostic or nondestructive Testing, has been in vogue for some time now. Of the many parameters used as sensitive indices of the dynamics of insulation degradation, temporal changes in temperatures at different locations in the body of the transformer, more precisely, the winding hot spots (HST) and top oil temperature (TOT) are believed to give a fairly accurate indication of the rate of degradation. Further, an accurate estimation of the temperatures would enable to determine the loading limit (loadability) of power transformer. To estimate the temperature rise reasonably accurately, one has to resort to classical mathematical techniques involving formulation and solution of boundary value problem of heat conduction under carefully prescribed boundary conditions. Several complications are encountered in the development of the governing equations for the emergent heat transfer problems. The more important among them are, the inhomogeneous composition of the insulation structure and of the conductor, divergent flow patterns of the oil phase and inordinately varying thermal properties of conductor and insulation. Validation and reconfirmation of the findings of the thermal models can be made using state of the art methods, such as, Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques, Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Genetic Algorithm (GA). Over the years, different criteria have been prescribed for the prediction of terminal or end of life (EOL) of equipment from the standpoint of its insulation. But, thus far, no straightforward and unequivocal criterion is forth coming. Calculation of elapsed life in line with the existing methodology, given by IEEE, IEC, introduces unacceptable degrees of uncertainty. It is needless to say that, any conformal procedure proposed in the accurate prediction of EOL, has to be based on a technically feasible and economically viable consideration. A systematic study for understanding the dynamical nature of ageing in transformers in actual service is precluded for reasons very well known. Laboratory experiments on prototypes or pro-rated units fabricated based on similarity studies, are performed under controlled conditions and at accelerated stress levels to reduce experimental time. The results thereof can then be judiciously extrapolated to normal operating conditions and for full size equipment. The terms of reference of the present work are as follows; 1. Computation of TOT and HST Theoretical model based on Boundary Value Problem of Heat Conduction Application of AI Techniques 2. Experimental Investigation for estimating the Elapsed Life of transformers Based on the experimental investigation a semi-empirical expression has been developed to estimate the loss of life of power and station transformer by analyzing gas content and furfural dissolved in oil without performing off-line and destructive tests.

The knowledge about the reliability of power electronics is necessary for the design of converters. Especially for offshore applications it is essential to know, which fatigue processes happen and how the lifetime can be estimated. Numerical simulation is an important tool for the development of power electronic systems. This thesis analyse the thermal and thermal-mechanical behaviour of packages for power semiconductor devices with the help of simulations. One topic is the evaluation of different thermal models. The main focus is on the description of the thermal cross-coupling between the devices and the influence to the lifetime estimation. The power module is a well established package for power semiconductor devices. It will be explained how the heating period of power cycles influences the failure mode of this package type. Additionally, it will evaluated how SiC devices and DAB substrates influence the power cycling capability. The press-pack is in focus for high power applications as the package short-circuits during an electrical failure without external auxiliary systems. However, the knowledge about the power cycling behaviour is currently limited. With the help of simulations this behaviour will be analysed and possible weak points will be also derived. In the end of the work it will be discussed, how the lifetime can be estimated with help of FEM simulations. / Für die Entwicklung von Umrichtern ist die Kenntnis über die Zuverlässigkeit der Leistungselektronik ein wichtiges Kernthema. Insbesondere für Offshore-Anwendungen ist das Wissen über die stattfindenden Ermüdungsprozesse und die Abschätzung der zu erwartenden Lebensdauer der Bauteile essentiell. Hierfür hat sich die Simulation als ein wichtiges Werkzeug für die Entwicklung und Lebensdauerbewertung von leistungselektronischen Anlagen etabliert. In der folgenden Arbeit wird das thermische und das thermisch-mechanische Verhalten der Leistungselektronik mittels Simulationen untersucht. Hierzu wird ein Vergleich zwischen verschiedenen thermischen Modellen für Leistungsbauelemente durchgeführt. Schwerpunkt ist die Beschreibung der thermischen Kopplung zwischen den Chips und deren Einfluss auf die Lebensdauerabschätzung. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt ist das Leistungsmodul, welches sich als ein Standardgehäuse etabliert hat. Dazu wird erklärt, wie die Variation der Einschaltzeit im aktiven Lastwechseltest den Fehlermodus dieses Gehäusetyps beeinflusst. Weiterhin wird untersucht, wie SiC als Leistungshalbleiter und DAB als Substrat die Zuverlässigkeit beein- flusst. Der Press-Pack ist für Hochleistungsapplikationen von hohem Interesse, da dieses Gehäuse im elektrischen Fehlerfall ohne äußere Unterstützung kurzschliesst. Jedoch ist das Wissen über diese Gehäusetechnologie unter aktiven Lastwechselbedingungen sehr limitiert. Mit Hilfe von Simulationen wird dieses Verhalten untersucht und mögliche Schwachpunkte abgeleitet. Am Ende der Arbeit werden Möglichkeiten untersucht, wie Mithilfe von FEM Simulationen die Lebensdauer von Leistungsmodulen evaluiert werden kann.

The knowledge about the reliability of power electronics is necessary for the design of converters. Especially for offshore applications it is essential to know, which fatigue processes happen and how the lifetime can be estimated. Numerical simulation is an important tool for the development of power electronic systems. This thesis analyse the thermal and thermal-mechanical behaviour of packages for power semiconductor devices with the help of simulations. One topic is the evaluation of different thermal models. The main focus is on the description of the thermal cross-coupling between the devices and the influence to the lifetime estimation. The power module is a well established package for power semiconductor devices. It will be explained how the heating period of power cycles influences the failure mode of this package type. Additionally, it will evaluated how SiC devices and DAB substrates influence the power cycling capability. The press-pack is in focus for high power applications as the package short-circuits during an electrical failure without external auxiliary systems. However, the knowledge about the power cycling behaviour is currently limited. With the help of simulations this behaviour will be analysed and possible weak points will be also derived. In the end of the work it will be discussed, how the lifetime can be estimated with help of FEM simulations. / Für die Entwicklung von Umrichtern ist die Kenntnis über die Zuverlässigkeit der Leistungselektronik ein wichtiges Kernthema. Insbesondere für Offshore-Anwendungen ist das Wissen über die stattfindenden Ermüdungsprozesse und die Abschätzung der zu erwartenden Lebensdauer der Bauteile essentiell. Hierfür hat sich die Simulation als ein wichtiges Werkzeug für die Entwicklung und Lebensdauerbewertung von leistungselektronischen Anlagen etabliert. In der folgenden Arbeit wird das thermische und das thermisch-mechanische Verhalten der Leistungselektronik mittels Simulationen untersucht. Hierzu wird ein Vergleich zwischen verschiedenen thermischen Modellen für Leistungsbauelemente durchgeführt. Schwerpunkt ist die Beschreibung der thermischen Kopplung zwischen den Chips und deren Einfluss auf die Lebensdauerabschätzung. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt ist das Leistungsmodul, welches sich als ein Standardgehäuse etabliert hat. Dazu wird erklärt, wie die Variation der Einschaltzeit im aktiven Lastwechseltest den Fehlermodus dieses Gehäusetyps beeinflusst. Weiterhin wird untersucht, wie SiC als Leistungshalbleiter und DAB als Substrat die Zuverlässigkeit beein- flusst. Der Press-Pack ist für Hochleistungsapplikationen von hohem Interesse, da dieses Gehäuse im elektrischen Fehlerfall ohne äußere Unterstützung kurzschliesst. Jedoch ist das Wissen über diese Gehäusetechnologie unter aktiven Lastwechselbedingungen sehr limitiert. Mit Hilfe von Simulationen wird dieses Verhalten untersucht und mögliche Schwachpunkte abgeleitet. Am Ende der Arbeit werden Möglichkeiten untersucht, wie Mithilfe von FEM Simulationen die Lebensdauer von Leistungsmodulen evaluiert werden kann.