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Background and Objective: Nickel-base superalloys, strengthened by a high volume fraction of Ni3Al precipitates, have been the undisputed choice for turbine discs in gas turbines as they exhibit the best available combination of elevated temperature tensile strength and resistance to low cycle fatigue (LCF), which are essential for a disc alloy. Alloy 720LI is a wrought nickel-base superalloy developed for disc application and exhibit superior elevated temperature tensile strength and LCF properties. It is distinct from contemporary disc alloys because of its chemistry, (especially Ti, Al and interstitial (C and B) contents), processing and heat treatment. However, literature available in open domain to develop an understanding of these properties in alloy 720LI is rather limited. This study was taken up in this background with an objective of assessing the tensile and LCF properties exhibited by alloy 720LI within a temperature regime of interest and understand the structure-property correlations behind it. Tensile Behavior: The effect of temperature and strain rate on monotonic tensile properties were assessed at different temperature in the range of 25 – 750°C (0.67 Tm) at a strain rate of 10-4 s-1 and strain rate effects were explored in detail at 25, 400, 650 and 750°C at different strain rates between 10-5 s-1 and 10-1 s-1. Yield and ultimate tensile strength of the alloy remains unaffected by temperature till about 600°C (0.58Tm) and 500°C (0.51Tm), respectively, beyond which both decreased drastically. Negligible strain rate sensitivity exhibited by the alloy at 25 and 400°C indicated that flow stress is a strong function of strain hardening rather than strain rate hardening. However at 650 and 750°C, especially at low strain rates, strain rate sensitivity is relatively high. TEM studies revealed that heterogeneous planar slip involving shearing of precipitates by dislocation pairs was prevalent under strain rate insensitive conditions and more homogeneous slip was evident when flow stresses were strain rate sensitive. The planarity of slip is also considered responsible for the deviation in experimental data from the Ludwick–Hollomon power-law at low plastic strains in regimes insensitive to strain rate. Irrespective of strain rate sensitivity and degree of homogeneity of slip, fracture mode remained ductile at almost all the conditions studied. Dynamic Strain Ageing: Alloy 720LI exhibits jerky flow in monotonic tension at intermediate temperatures ranging from 250-475°C. After considering all known causes for serrated flow in materials, the instability in flow (Portevin-LeChatelier (PLC) effect) is considered attributable to dynamic strain ageing (DSA), arising from interactions between diffusing solute atoms and mobile dislocations during plastic flow. As the temperature range of DSA coincided with typical bore and web temperatures of turbine discs, its possible influence on tensile properties is considered in detail. No significant change in tensile strength, ductility, or work hardening is observed, due to DSA, with increase in temperature from smooth to serrated flow regime. However strain rate sensitivity, which is positive in smooth flow regime turned negative in the serrated flow regime. Analysis of serrated flow on the basis of critical plastic strain for onset of serrations revealed that in most of the temperature-strain rate regimes studied, alloy 720LI exhibits ‘inverse’ PLC effect which is a phenomenon that has not been fully understood in contrast to ‘normal’ PLC effect observed widely in dilute solid solutions. Other characteristics of serrated flow viz., stress decrement and strain increment between serrations are also analyzed to understand the mechanism of DSA. Though the activation energy determined using stress decrements suggest that carbon atoms could be responsible for locking of dislocations, based on its influence on mechanical properties and also on its temperature regime of existence, weak pinning of dislocations by substitutional solute atoms are considered responsible for DSA in alloy 720LI. LCF Behavior: LCF studies were carried out under fully reversed constant strain amplitude conditions at 25, 400 and 650°C with strain amplitudes ranging from 0.4-1.2%. Different cyclic stress responses observed depending on the imposed conditions are correlated to the substructures that evolved. Low level of dislocation activity and interactions observed in TEM is considered the reason behind stable cyclic stress response at low strain amplitudes at all temperatures. TEM studies also show that secondary γ’ precipitates that are degraded through repeated shearing are responsible for the continuous softening, observed after a short initial hardening phase, at higher strain amplitudes. Studies at 400°C show manifestation of DSA on LCF behavior at 400°C in the form increased cyclic hardening which tends to offset softening effects at higher strain amplitudes. Plastic strain dependence of fatigue lives exhibited bilinearity in Coffin-Manson plots at all temperatures. TEM substructures revealed that planar slip with deformation concentrated on slip bands is the major deformation mode under all the conditions examined. However, homogeneity of deformation increases with increase in strain and temperature. At 25°C, with increasing strain, increased homogeneity manifested in the form of increased number of slip bands. At 650°C, with increase in strain, increased dislocation activity in the inter-slip band regions lead to increased homogeneity. It is also seen that fine deformation twins that form at 650°C and low strain amplitudes play a role in aiding homogenization of deformation. Unlike other alloy systems where an environmental effect or a change in deformation mechanism leads to bilinearity in Coffin – Manson (CM) plots, our study shows that differences in distribution of slip is the reason behind bilinear CM plots. While the properties and behavior of alloy 720LI under monotonic and cyclic loading conditions over a range of temperatures could be rationalized on the basis of deformation substructures, the thesis opens up the door for further in-depth studies on deformation mechanisms in 720LI as well as other disc alloys of similar microstructure.

Superalloys have performed well as blade and disc materials in turbine engines due to their exceptional elevated temperature strength, high resistance to creep, oxidation and corrosion as well as good fracture toughness. This study explores the use of a relatively new technique of strain measurement, high resolution electron backscatter diffraction (HR-EBSD) to measure local deformation fields. The heart of the HR-EBSD technique lies in comparing regions in EBSD patterns from a strained region of a sample to those in a pattern from an unstrained region. This method was applied to study the elastic strain fields and geometrically necessary dislocation density (GND density) distribution near hard carbide particles in a nickel-based superalloy MAR-M-002. Significant thermal strains were initially induced by thermal treatment, which included a final cooling from the ageing temperature of 870°C. Elastic strains were consistent with a compressive radial strain and tensile hoop strain that was expected as the matrix contracts around the carbide. The mismatch in thermal expansion coefficient of the carbide particles compared to that of the matrix was sufficient to have induced localized plastic deformation in the matrix leading to a GND density of 3 x 10¹³ m^–2 in regions around the carbide. These measured elastic strain and GND densities have been used to help develop a crystal plasticity finite element model in another research group and some comparisons under thermal loading have also been examined. Three-point bending was then used to impose strain levels within the range ±12% across the height of a bend bar sample. GND measurements were then made at both carbide-containing and carbide-free regions at different heights across the bar. The average GND density increases with the magnitude of the imposed strain (both in tension and compression), and is markedly higher near the carbide particles. The higher GND densities near the carbides (order of 10¹⁴ per m²) are generated by the large strain gradients produced around the plastically rigid inclusion during monotonic mechanical deformation with some minor contribution from the pre-existing residual deformation from thermal loading. A method was developed of combining the local EBSD measurements with FE modelling to set the average residual strains within the mapped region even when a good strain free reference point was unavailable. Cyclic loading was then performed under four point loading to impose strain levels of about ±8% across the height of bend bar samples. Similar measurements as in the case of monotonic deformation were made at several interruptions to fatigue loading. Observations from the cyclic loading such as slip features, carbide cracking, GND density accumulation have been explored around carbide particles, at regions away from them and near a grain boundary.

Les alliages à base Nickel polycristallins sont largement utilisés pour les pièces aéronautiques soumises à des sollicitations extrêmes en service. Des objectifs toujours plus ambitieux en termes de rendement énergétique des moteurs d’avions ont conduit les constructeurs à augmenter leur température de fonctionnement. Les nuances utilisées jusqu’alors dans les parties chaudes, tels que l’Inconel 718, n’ont pas une tenue mécanique suffisante à ces températures. Le René 65 est un nouvel alliage à microstructure γ-γ’ élaboré spécifiquement pour ces applications. Il a été retenu par Safran Aircraft Engines comme constituant des disques de turbine basse pression du nouveau turboréacteur LEAP. Pour garantir la bonne tenue des disques, une microstructure fine et homogène est requise. Le procédé de forgeage de ces pièces est une séquence d’étapes de déformation à chaud et de traitements thermiques, durant lesquelles la microstructure évolue. Si les phénomènes physiques gouvernant les évolutions microstructurales sont connus, leurs mécanismes exacts et leurs cinétiques varient d’un alliage à l’autre.Des essais de déformation à chaud ont été réalisés en laboratoire dans différentes conditions de température, vitesse et taux de déformation représentatifs des procédés industriels. L’étude précise des mécanismes de recristallisation dynamique, ainsi que de leurs cinétiques, constitue la première partie de ce travail. La caractérisation fine des microstructures déformées a permis de mettre en évidence un nouveau mécanisme de recristallisation, dit de recristallisation en hétéroépitaxie, qui se superpose aux autres mécanismes conventionnels. L’interaction entre ces différents mécanismes ainsi que leurs cinétiques relatives ont été établies dans une vaste gamme de conditions de déformation. Il est démontré que ce mécanisme de recristallisation s'applique également à d'autres alliages γ-γ’. La deuxième partie de l’étude est consacrée à la stabilité des microstructures déformées lors de leur exposition à haute température. L'alliage René 65, comme d’autres alliages à base Nickel, est sensible à un phénomène indésirable dit de croissance sélective de grains. Ses conditions de déclenchement ont été déterminées, de manière à délimiter une fenêtre de forgeage critique. Les mécanismes microstructuraux à l’origine de ce phénomène ont été discutés, ainsi que la possibilité d’une solution préventive. / Polycrystalline Nickel-based alloys are widely used as components for rotative parts of jet engines submitted to extreme conditions. Endlessly increasing objectives in terms of energy efficiency have led the engine manufacturers to increase their service temperature. As a consequence, Inconel 718 and similar alloys -that were used until now- cannot withstand such severe conditions anymore, and lack mechanical resistance at the increased temperature. René 65 is a new γ-γ’ superalloy which has been designed specifically for that purpose by General Electric. It has been selected by Safran Aircraft Engines as the material for low-pressure turbine disks in the new LEAP engine. To reach the desired mechanical properties, a fine and homogeneous microstructure is required. The forging process is a complex sequence which involves various hot deformation stages and thermal treatments, during which the microstructure evolves. Although the underlying mechanisms governing the microstructure evolutions are quite known, their specific mechanism and kinetics may vary depending on the alloy.Interrupted compression tests were conducted at laboratory scale under thermomechanical conditions (temperature, strain and strain rate) in accordance with the industrial process. In the first part, the focus is placed on the dynamic recrystallization mechanisms. Accurate characterization of the deformed microstructures has enabled to highlight a new recrystallization mechanism which superimposes with more conventional ones. It was named heteroepitaxial recrystallization. The interactions between those mechanisms as well as their relative kinetics have been established in a wide range of deformation conditions. . It is demonstrated that this mechanism occurs in other γ-γ’ Nickel-based alloys. The second part of the study is dedicated to the stability of deformed microstructures when exposed to high temperature thermal treatments. René 65, as many other Nickel-based alloys, is subjected to the undesirable phenomenon of selective grain growth, which leads to very heterogeneous microstructures containing abnormally large grains in a fine matrix. Critical deformation conditions leading to heterogeneous microstructures during subsequent annealing have been determined in an aim to identify the critical forging window which should be avoided. The microstructural mechanisms responsible of this phenomenon have been investigated, and the possibility of a preventive solution is discussed.

This work deals with the issue of defects generation during the separation of the castings from a nickel-based superalloy, Inconel 738LC. The technology of investment casting is presented, followed by a description of metallurgy of superalloys, their physical and mechanical properties, as well as their technical applications. The machinability of superalloys and method of castings separation were also described as well as some of the casting defects that were reported to have impact on the generation of the defects after cutting. In the experimental part, the material microstructure and casting defects were analyzed. The experimental machining part consisted first of a comparative study of the friction sawing and plasma arc cutting technology at the standard operating conditions actually used in production. Second, an optimization study for the friction sawing was carried out, with a special focus on the suitability of an alternative cutoff wheel for the chosen application. Application of this wheel allows reducing the security distance between the cut and the part, thus reducing the production cost of the part.

[pt] Este trabalho consiste na caracterização da fase gama linha em superligas de níquel através do processamento e análise digital de imagens. Amostras de uma superliga de níquel foram submetidas a 10 tratamentos térmicos diferentes. Após o tratamento térmico, estas amostras foram preparadas para avaliação metalográfica e imagens da microestrutura foram adquiridas no microscópio eletrônico de varredura (MEV). A fase gama linha presente no material foi segmentada e posteriormente medida através do processamento digital de imagens. Foram analisadas 429 imagens, o que gerou medidas de mais de 225,000 partículas. Foi medida a fração de área ocupada pelas partículas de gama linha, a quantidade de partículas por imagem, a área de cada partícula e a razão de aspectos das partículas. Uma análise estatística dos resultados foi realizada. Os resultados mostraram menor concentração e maior tamanho de gama linha com o aumento da temperatura, conforme era esperado. O uso de análise digital de imagens permitiu obter medidas com altíssima confiabilidade, uma vez que a alta velocidade de análise permite uma amostragem muito superior às técnicas tradicionais de caracterização microestrutural. / [en] This study consists of the characterization of the gamma prime phase in nickel base superalloys using digital image processing and analysis. Samples of a nickel base superalloy were heat treated to 10 different temperatures. After the heat treatment cycle, the samples were prepared for metallographic evaluation and images of the microstructure were acquired using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The gamma prime was segmented and measured using digital image processing methods. 429 images were analyzed, in which over 225000 particles were measured. The following parameters were obtained: area fraction of gamma prime, number of particles of gamma prime per image, area of each particle and the particles' feret ratio. An statistical analysis of the data was performed The results showed that the gamma prime fraction decreases and its size increases with temperature increase, as expected. The use of digital image analysis provided measurements with high accuracy, as the high speed of digital image analysis allowed sampling much superior to the traditional microstructural characterization methods.

<p>In this licentiate thesis the work done in the project KME410 will be presented. The overall objective of this project is to evaluate and develop tools for designing against fatigue in single-crystal nickel-base superalloys in gas turbines. Experiments have been done on single-crystal nickel-base superalloy specimens in order to investigate the mechanical behaviour of the material. The constitutive behaviour has been modelled and verified by simulations of the experiments. Furthermore, the  microstructural degradation during long-time ageing has been investigated with  respect to the component’s yield limit. The effect has been included in the  constitutive model by lowering the resulting yield limit. Finally, the fatigue crack  initiation of a component has been analysed and modelled by using a critical plane approach.</p><p>This thesis is divided into three parts. In the first part the theoretical framework, based upon continuum mechanics, crystal plasticity and the critical plane approach, is derived. This framework is then used in the second part, which consists of three included papers. Finally, in the third part, details are presented of the used  numerical procedures.</p>

In this licentiate thesis the work done in the project KME410 will be presented. The overall objective of this project is to evaluate and develop tools for designing against fatigue in single-crystal nickel-base superalloys in gas turbines. Experiments have been done on single-crystal nickel-base superalloy specimens in order to investigate the mechanical behaviour of the material. The constitutive behaviour has been modelled and verified by simulations of the experiments. Furthermore, the  microstructural degradation during long-time ageing has been investigated with  respect to the component’s yield limit. The effect has been included in the  constitutive model by lowering the resulting yield limit. Finally, the fatigue crack  initiation of a component has been analysed and modelled by using a critical plane approach. This thesis is divided into three parts. In the first part the theoretical framework, based upon continuum mechanics, crystal plasticity and the critical plane approach, is derived. This framework is then used in the second part, which consists of three included papers. Finally, in the third part, details are presented of the used  numerical procedures.