The goal of this dissertation is to contribute to the new field of happiness economics which over the past several decades has substantially enhanced our understanding of cognitive judgment, human behavior, and the nature of happiness. Chapter 1 starts with a discussion of the subjective approach to measuring well-being and lays the foundation for the empirical work that follows in chapters 2 and 3. This approach has a strong appeal because ancient and modern cultures, and a long tradition in philosophy, view achieving happiness as the ultimate goal of human existence. It also recognizes that humans are the best judges of their own condition. In this first chapter, I discuss some common ambiguities related to the term happiness and outline some of the most common ways in which subjective well-being (SWB)data is measured. Next, I discuss how reliable subjective well-being data is and what are some of its strengths and weaknesses in the context of economic research. Some major insights from the growing literature on happiness economics are also provided and alternative approaches to measuring quality of life (and well-being) are suggested in the last section. One puzzle in the happiness economics literature has been that although real incomes have substantially improved over the past 40 years, happiness levels in the United States have stagnated. In chapter 2, I show that the rising level of income inequality in the United States since the 1970s can explain the stagnating happiness levels of Americans. First, using subjective well-being data from the General Social Survey, I estimate the concavity of the utility function within a neo-utilitarian framework of welfare analysis and calculate the Atkinson index of inequality. Although the estimates suggests that Americans have become increasingly more inequality-averse over time, the results suggest that the concavity of the utility function alone cannot explain the happiness patterns observed in the past several decades. Once I account for the negative external cost from economic inequality, however, the empirical analysis implies that economic growth has not been sufficient to compensate for the loss of subjective well-being associated with the rising level of inequality. This is consistent with the findings of several different surveys on subjective well-being. Finally, I evaluate the equality-efficiency trade-off in the US, and discover a small and positive trade-off. Chapter 3 considers another important policy topic in recent years -- the increasing cost of college tuition and the scrutinized value of higher education. Using subjective well-being data, I show that higher education has a large non-monetary (happiness) return that goes beyond the benefit of finding a better paid and more satisfying job. A person with a high school degree, for instance, would have to earn \$41,683 more per year to be equally as happy as somebody with a college degree that has a similar socio-economic background. This large non-monetary return is associated with better marriage, health, and parenting choices, and stronger social networks that translate into higher levels of interpersonal trust. The lion's share of this non-monetary return is earned in college while the majority of the returns from graduate school are associated with higher salary. This return varies among the different subgroups of the population. Women, for example, benefit twice as much from a college education as men, and this non-monetary return has slightly increased over time. This may explain, at least partially, the increase in demand for college education over the past 30 years, and the unprecedented rise in the price of college tuition. It is hypothesized that one way in which education works is to change the attitudes, values, and behavior of students. Higher education, for example, makes students more open-minded, tolerant, and risk-averse. Evidence in support of this hypothesis is found by estimating the coefficient of risk (and inequality) aversion. Finally, using subjective well-being data from the European Value Study, the average non-monetary return from higher education is also calculated for Europeans and compared to that in the United States. Although higher education is also found to have a positive effect on happiness in Europe, the non-monetary returns are much larger in the United States. Furthermore, contrary to the United States, the direct effect of education on happiness in Europe is substantial, while the indirect effect is negligible.

The author examined the effect of personality traits and the buffering effect of social support on psychological well-being of primary school teachers in inclusive education in Hong Kong. A sample of 200 Chinese teachers was surveyed. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that neuroticism was highly correlated with and accounted for depression, anxiety, and burnout in our sample. Family support was found to have significant main effect on depression (R² = 48%, ΔR² = 3%), and anxiety (R² = 63%, ΔR² = 2%) when the main effects of neuroticism were partialled out. Significant moderating effect of family support on the relationship between neuroticism and depression was found. To further investigate the effect of marital status on this buffering model, hierarchical regression analysis was conducted with teachers who were married and those who were single, respectively. The analyses revealed significant main effects of neuroticism regardless of teachers’ marital status. Significant main effect of family support and interaction Neuroticism x Family Support were only found for married teachers. These findings have implications that family support was an important factor in mitigating psychological distress particularly for teachers who were married and reported high level of neuroticism. Interventions of enhancing family support and school support were discussed. / published_or_final_version / Educational Psychology / Master / Master of Social Sciences

Research suggests that the deployment cycle is associated with decreased psychological well-being in military spouses, yet not all individuals married to military service members experience psychopathology. It may be that spouses who do not experience reduced well-being possess personal resources, such as positive emotions, that protect them against the stresses of military life. The primary purpose of this dissertation was to determine the effect of deployment on the well-being of military spouses and examine whether personal resources protected military spouses and enhanced their wellbeing throughout the deployment cycle. A synthesis of the existing literature was performed in order to determine the direction and magnitude of the effect of deployment on the psychological well-being of military spouses. For the primary analyses, participants were drawn from a convenience sample of military spouses stationed at Fort Hood, Texas. Meta-analysis, hierarchical linear regression, and structural equation modeling were used to test study hypotheses. In the first study, a meta-analytic review, deployment was found to have a moderate effect on psychological well-being, such that spouses experienced greater psychological problems during deployment. Two studies were conducted as part of the primary analyses. In the first, positivity was found to moderate the relationship between stress and depressive symptoms during deployment. Specifically, the relationship between stress and depressive symptoms was stronger for spouses with low levels of positivity. Finally, the third study found that adaptive coping, maladaptive coping, and resilience completely mediated the relationship between positive emotions and depressive symptoms. Of the three mediators, adaptive coping was found to be the most influential. Together, the results of these three studies illuminate the detrimental effect of deployment on the psychological well-being of military spouses, while providing support for the broaden-and-build theory's proposed roles of positive emotions -- broadening, building, and undoing -- in a unique population. Study limitations, implications for military spouses, and suggestions for future directions in research are discussed.

Research has shown that caregivers are confronted with a number of stressors such as burnout, compassion fatigue, and post-traumatic stress disorder as a result of being in direct or close contact with the people suffering from chronic diseases such as HIV/AIDS. However, relevant and professional training, and effective self-care strategies could prevent such stressors. Using the “Individual Interviews with Formal Caregivers” dataset, this study looked at the experiences of seventeen caregivers who provided care to stigmatized and low income people of living with HIV/AIDS. The study sought to understand how the well-being of caregivers was impacted by providing care to stigmatized and low income people living with HIV/AIDS in Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Also, it examined how formal caregivers perceived their relationship with people living with HIV/AIDS at their care. The findings suggested that caregivers were confronted with and experienced stressors such as burnout, compassion fatigue, and secondary traumatic stress due to having direct and close relationships with people living with HIV/AIDS in their care. Medical caregivers treating HIV/AIDS patients perceived these as formal professional relationships; however, most caregivers working in community support, community outreach, and education sectors understood their caregiving relationships with people living with HIV/AIDS as that of supporter and helper. There was not much research on how caregivers in HIV/AIDS sector perceived their relationships with people living with HIV in their care, so further research is needed to explore the nature of the relationship between the caregiver and care recipients. Finally, this study enriched the existing research on this topic by providing an insight on how caregivers in HIV sector perceive their relationships with individuals living with HIV/ AIDS in their care. / October 2015

In the wake of war, political disturbance, or civil strife, there is little doubt that refugees are exposed to highly traumatic experiences. However, despite these challenges, four out of five refugees never experience long-term mental health or stress effects. Most existing studies have been limited to focusing on negative aspects of refugee mental health. Little research has been conducted on positive aspects of refugee mental health. This research uses the salutogenic model of health developed by Antonovsky to evaluate factors contributing to positive mental health outcomes among refugees to Winnipeg, Canada. Using reflexive sociological interviews with eight refugees to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, I identify and analyze salutary factors associated with positive mental health and psychological well-being of refugees. Five thematic types of generalized resistance resources emerged from the interview accounts as salutary: support from macro and micro levels of interpersonal relationships; religious activities and spiritual beliefs/faith; hope for the future; educational opportunities; and employment prospects. Relevant salutogenic policy suggestions based upon this research may be incorporated into refugee resettlement programs and policies to promote refugee mental health in Winnipeg and also contribute to positive resettlement. / October 2015

The field of psychology has traditionally focused on the deleterious effects of adversity to the exclusion of positive effects. However, a literature on positive sequelae of traumatic events has burgeoned over the past decade. The issue of whether individual's reports of positive changes are merely illusory self-enhancing biases or are reflective of objective, quantifiable change is perhaps the most contentious in the posttraumatic growth research at this time. This dissertation begins with a broad overview of the extant research on posttraumatic growth, then presents the evidence supporting each side of the validity debate. As the population studied in this dissertation is adults with traumatic-onset spinal cord injuries, a presentation of research that ties disability to the posttraumatic growth literature follows. Finally, the introductory chapter concludes with an argument for the importance of including a disability perspective in psychological science. Three papers follow, each taking up aspects of this relatively new focus on positive aspects of disability. / Psychology

Belonging is a basic and fundamental human need (Baumeister, & Leary, 1995) that is associated with psychosocial health (Cohen, 2004). Unfortunately, community belonging is a challenge for those with a bisexual identity. Binegativity, minority stress, and the invisibility of bisexual-identities may interfere with attempts to develop a sense of community belonging (Bradford, 2004). Little systematic research has examined bisexual-identified people’s perceptions and experiences of belonging to a community. This project addressed the question, “What are bisexual individuals’ experiences of community belonging/social exclusion?” Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a sample of 12 bisexual-identified persons. Interview transcripts were analyzed using a constructivist grounded theory methodology (Charmaz, 2006). Findings indicated that bisexual-identified persons encountered stigma and at times concealed their sexuality in order to create community belonging. However, risking authenticity, rather than concealing identity, seemed to help participants deal with stigma and develop more meaningful community belonging. Bisexual-identified persons who risk disclosing their identity and develop a sense of authenticity may increase their opportunities for community belonging. These findings are discussed in relation to their implications for counseling bisexual-identified persons and educating the communities in which they live.

Drawing upon critical interpretive medical anthropology (Lock and Scheper-Hughes 1996) and Judith Butler’s (1990) concept of performativity, this thesis investigates the empowerment potential and effect on well-being of a community sewing group located in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. This project was conducted using the methods of narrative ethnography, including semi-structured individual interviews, focus groups, and participant observation and finds that the Saskatoon Mothers’ Centre Sewing Circle contributes to well-being in three major ways. First, learning to sew shapes women’s self-perceptions, resulting in more capable, productive, and self-sufficient subjectivities. Learning to sew also enables women to act with more agency in their daily lives, empowering them through the opportunity to express identities, enhance social networks, and act within financial limitations. Finally, the Sewing Circle creates an environment of empowerment, an emotionally and physically safe space in which mothers are supported and nurtured, resulting in the formation of a supportive and encouraging community of practice. The Sewing Circle therefore supports women’s well-being by instilling them with the confidence and ability to act in their daily lives and to fulfill their potential. This research contributes to an understanding of the way in which sewing can contribute to the holistic well-being of older mothers by linking empowerment to performativity, and may contribute to the development of similar empowerment programming in the future.

Many studies have been conducted on military families in order to determine the effect of parent absence and frequent family moves on the academic adjustment and emotional well-being of children. Research has shown that environmental factors, such as parents coping abilities, social support, length of deployment, frequency of moves, and preparation for deployments or moves can influence the effects children experience due to deployments and relocations. Children of military families can be resilient and successful in school during deployment and moves. / text

To address some remaining questions in the extant family caregiving literature, the present study examined a specific care-recipient (CR) problematic behavior that could be the most critical to family caregiver (CG) emotional and physical well-being--CR-resistance or uncooperative behaviors vis-à-vis the CG. In order to provide detailed descriptions of CR-resistance and to determine the impact of CR-resistance on CG emotional and physical well-being, the present study applied a sequential quantitative-qualitative mixed method design approach with 8-day diary survey data on 63 family CGs and follow-up semi-structured interview data from 19 of those CGs.The quantitative data documented and revealed significant within- and between-person variance in CR-resistance. Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) analyses results further revealed that neither the mean level nor the daily fluctuation of CR-resistance across 8 survey days by themselves appeared to have a significant impact on CG emotional or physical health. However, the combination of having relatively high mean level and daily fluctuation of CR-resistance brought had a significant impact on CG physical health; when CGs with relatively high mean level CR-resistance faced more than their usual amount of CR-resistance on a given day, they reported increases in physical health symptoms.The qualitative inductive thematic analyses revealed that based on the context in which CR-resistance occurred and the occurrence patterns, CR-resistance experiences could be divided into four types, and these four types of CR-resistance seem to pose different types and/or magnitude of impact on CG emotional well-being.Furthermore, informed by Social Cognitive Theory and Stress Theory, the present study also examined CG personal, interpersonal, and social resources as possible moderators of the link between CR-resistance and CG emotional/physical well-being. HLM analyses results revealed that CG sense of efficacy, community/professional service utilization, and family disagreement regarding care played significant moderating roles. The qualitative thematic analyses clearly suggested that specific CG cognitive resources--particularly those that were transferred and/or generalized from the CG's past professional or personal experiences--have a strong influence on CG resilience in the face of CR-resistance. The moderating results were interpreted light of theoretical frameworks and extant literature. Implications and future directions are discussed.