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Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Arts, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Social Work. / This study aimed at analyzing the social service programmes of 30 randomly selected 'progressive organisations' in terms of: 1. the nature of services offered 2. their rationale for service delivery 3. the goals of service delivery 4. the values and principles underlying service delivery 5. the strategies and methods used for service delivery 6. the outcome of services as perceived by the progressive organisations. on the basis of the information gathered, it was intended that this study would contribute towards an evolving understanding of the indigenisation process ocourring in social service delivery in South Africa. A qualitative-descriptive research design was used. A total of 103 organisations which met the requirements of a 'progressive organisation' with a 'social service programme' Were identified in the PWV area. From this universe, a 26% sample of 27 organisations was randomly drawn. An administered schedule was utilised in order to gather data from the respondents. Data was prooessed according to the SAS (Statistical Analysis of the Social sciences) programme. It was found that a move towards indigenisation has begun to emerge. This model of welfare has been in direct contrast to the traditional formal welfare system in South Africa Which historically was based on the ideology of apartheid. The major conclusions arising out of this study were that the progressive social service organisations under study were contributing towards the development of authentic social service delivery by: Incorporating social services into their programmes in order to meet the unmet social welfare needs of people, These unmet needs arose as a direct result of an inadequate formal welfare system in South Africa. Playing a major role in fulfilling peoples' unmet soclial welfare needs by offering services which welte traditionally not offered by most welfare organisations in South Africa. Incorporating new methodologies in to their service delivery as part of their commitment to make their services accessible and accountable to consumers. Being acutely conscious of the duality of their political and service objectives and delliberately striving to promote both. This combination of political and service objectives was carried out by including social development principles into service delivery. A general theme encapsulates the recommendations of this study. This refers to incorporating the experiences of the progressive social service movement into: social policy making education and training of social workers and, into furthering the process of authentication and indigenisation of social welfare in South Africa. It is further recommended that the indigenisation experiences of other countries should be studied in order to provide 'useful insights in the planning of a more appropriate model of social welfare in South Africa. / Andrew Chakane 2019

A common decline in marital functioning has been observed in couples as they adjust to first-time parenthood. This prospective, longitudinal study examined the trajectories of change in marital quality and observed warm and hostile behaviors across the transition to parenthood. Changes in patterns of marital quality were assessed to determine if they were a function of observed marital behaviors prior to childbirth or changes in observed marital behaviors across this transition. For both parent husbands and wives (N = 260 couples, 520 individuals) and nonparent husbands and wives (N = 107 couples, 214 individuals) participating in the Family Transitions Project (FTP; Conger & Conger, 2002), latent growth curve analyses were conducted on marital quality data and observed behavior data collected at two year intervals before childbirth, shortly after birth, and two years later to examine the rates of change. A general pattern of deterioration was observed for new parents in marital quality and observed warm and hostile behaviors. Observed warm and hostile behaviors prior to parenthood were significant in predicting both spouses' marital trajectories across this transition. Results from interlocked growth curves indicated that changes in observed warm and hostile behaviors did not significantly predict changes in marital quality. Finally, rates of change across four years did not significantly differ between parents and nonparents for marital quality or behavior. Clinical implications for marriage and family therapists are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2011. / Date of Defense: March 30, 2011. / Transition to parenthood, Marital quality, Behavior / Includes bibliographical references. / B. Kay Pasley, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Ming Cui, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Thomas Joiner, University Representative; Lenore McWey, Committee Member.

Loneliness in older adults is a problem. Loneliness negatively impacts the physical, mental and social health of an individual leading to problems including increased risk of poor health, cognitive decline, and death. As older adults utilize over 2.7 times more of U.S. personal health care expenses than should occur given their proportion of the population, the health of older adults is a societal issue. The current study examines the feasibility of a method to reduce loneliness in older adults by teaching participants various methods of computer-mediated communication (CMC). Participants were older adults who qualified as lonely utilizing a loneliness scale. The study was conducted in two phases. The first phase was a test of the intended intervention – a course on computer-mediated communication taught to a group of lonely older adults. In Phase 1, the researcher examined participant loneliness scores before and after the course was given, and the course on computer-mediated communication was examined for areas of improvement. The second phase implemented the intervention, with the changes recommended in Phase 1. The second phase also included the examination of hypotheses related to: the connections between CMC training and the level of use of computer mediated communication by older adults, the link between CMC training and computer self-efficacy in older adults, the determination of if an increase in CMC use by older adults is followed by improvement in social support or social network (two constructs linked with loneliness), and the determination if CMC use is followed by a reduction in social or emotional loneliness. / A Dissertation submitted to the College of Social Work in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester 2018. / October 16, 2018. / computer, computer-mediated communication, gerontology, loneliness, older adults, social media / Includes bibliographical references. / Bruce A. Thyer, Professor Directing Dissertation; Mia Liza A. Lustria, University Representative; Stephen J. Tripodi, Committee Member; Penny A. Ralston, Committee Member.

This dissertation uses the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW) to examine multi-systemic risk and resilience processes that lead to positive and negative outcomes in nationally representative sexually abused boys. This study focused on a sub-sample of 171 boys with reports of sexual abuse at the baseline. When weighting is applied this reflects a population of approximately 65,000 sexually abused boys involved in the child welfare system. The first aim of this study focuses on the impact of sexual abuse characteristics on behavioral problems, posttraumatic stress and academic achievement 1½, 3 and 5 years following the initial report of sexual abuse. The second aim of this study was to examine the moderating role of family context, as measured by cumulative family risk, across each of these outcomes. Finally, the third aim was to examine the moderating role of peer context, as measured by social skills and peer rejection, across each of these outcomes. Key findings indicated that cumulative family risk confers greater risk for internalizing problems, externalizing problems, posttraumatic stress and academic achievement; though not always in the expected directions. Social skills buffered the effect of a range of abuse characteristics on internalizing problems, externalizing problems and academic achievement but not posttraumatic stress. Peer rejection had a more prominent role in influencing internalizing outcomes and academic achievement; however this did not extend to externalizing problems, posttraumatic stress. Family and peer context moderators seemed to play a more central role at the most proximal and distal time points from the baseline report of maltreatment. This study finds a complex picture in the range and extent of the consequences associated with sexual abuse for young males. The results demonstrate the power in nurturing collaborative, multidisciplinary "healing communities" that can effectively target all levels of prevention and intervention; specifically, by incorporating the individual, family, peer/school and larger socio-cultural context. Future research should pay close attention to within group variation across socio-demographic and abuse characteristics and continue to disentangle the underlying mechanisms that contribute to adaptive and maladaptive outcomes for sexually abused boys given the multiple potential explanations for some of the unexpected findings in the present study.

The skills acquired in the first few years of life are critical in preparing children for school and for long term development. Families play a primary role in the development of cognitive and social skills as well as physical health. Changes in family structure that have occurred over the last several decades have resulted in fewer children growing up in a two parent married household; however, few children are raised by just one parent. Many children spend time in a three-generation family household, in which a grandparent, parent and child coreside. To date, little research has described the prevalence or correlates of three-generation family households or looked at the association between three-generation family coresidence and child wellbeing during early childhood. To fill this gap in the literature this dissertation was structured around three empirical chapters (papers) and the findings from those studies are described below. Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 4,898), Chapter 2 investigates how the share, correlates, transition patterns, and duration of three-generation households vary by mother's relationship status at birth. Nine percent of married mothers, 17% of cohabiting mothers, and 45% of single mothers live in a three-generation family household at the time of the child's birth. Incidence over time is much higher and most common among single-mother households: Sixty percent live in a three-generation family household at least 1 wave. Economic need, culture, and generational needs are associated with living in a three-generation household; correlates vary by mother's relationship status. Three-generation family households are short lived, and transitions are frequent. Kin support through coresidence is an important source of support for families with young children and in particular families in which the parents are unwed at the time of their child's birth. Chapter 3 investigates to what extent stable and unstable three-generation family households (grandparent, parent, child) are associated with child health, socioemotional and academic wellbeing over the first three years of a child's life. Using longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N=4,009) differences in the association by mother's relationship status and race/ethnicity are investigated. Results suggest stable three-generation family households are associated with child wellbeing whereas unstable or transitory three-generation households are not. Living in a stable three-generation family household is protective against child behavior problems for married families but detrimental for single or Black mothers. Stable three-generation coresidence is associated with higher PPVT scores but also higher odds of being overweight for some groups. Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study - Birth Cohort (N~10,700), Chapter 4 investigates the associations between stable and unstable (or transitory) three-generation coresidence over the first five years of life and school readiness, and how those associations vary by race/ethnicity. With a few exceptions, the findings suggest that three-generation family coresidence is not associated with cognitive development, psychomotor development, or physical health. However, coresidence with a grandparent is associated with a higher likelihood of obesity across all race/ethnicities, as well as more externalizing behavior for Whites and less externalizing behavior for Hispanics. Although differences between stable and unstable coresidence are mostly insignificant, stability appears to matter for behavior, but in different ways for Black and Asian children. Black children who unstably coreside and Asian children who stably coreside with a grandparent experience more internalizing and less prosocial and positive learning behaviors.

Environmental health is an integral component of public health and, therefore, of social welfare. Yet both social and environmental health scientists have failed to adequately consider the mutual benefits of --and synergism between-- environmental and social policies aimed at the protection of the health and well-being of children. The emerging scientific evidence that social and physical/chemical "toxicants" interact to cause childhood illness and impair children's development is providing new impetus to the integration of these disciplines. Child labor reform in the late 19th century can be seen as a milestone in the translation of science to policy. For the first time, scientific recognition of children's biological and psychological vulnerability was a major factor in shaping public policy. Yet the role of science as a force in shaping the perception of the value of the child and as a driver of reform during this period has not been widely recognized. The first paper, entitled "The Role of Science in Child Labor Reform in the Early Progressive Era (1870-1900)", describes how the growing understanding of physicians, toxicologists, sociologists, and psychologists that childhood was a biologically vulnerable period of life informed progressive reformers who used this knowledge, along with socio-economic, cultural and moral arguments, to advocate for reform. During the past several decades, there has been an exponential growth in scientific knowledge concerning the biological vulnerability of the developing fetus, infant, and child both to the toxic effects of environmental pollutants and psychosocial stressors associated with poverty or race/ethnicity. However, data are limited on the possible cumulative or synergistic effects of physical and `social' toxicants on child health and development. The second paper, entitled "Interaction between Prenatal Exposure to Airborne Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Maternal Psychological Distress in Pregnancy on Child Behavior ", provides new evidence of the complex consequences of environmental exposures acting in conjunction with psychosocial stressors. The specific research question addressed is whether maternal demoralization during pregnancy has a greater effect on neurobehavioral effects manifesting in childhood among children with high exposure to air pollution during gestation compared to those with low exposure. The results indicate the need for a multifaceted approach to prevention of developmental problems in children. A potential stumbling block to the integration of social and environmental policy has been the lack of adequately detailed analyses of the benefits of reducing environmental pollution. More research is needed on the monetized benefits of reducing pollution, in the overall population and as they affect less advantaged populations. The third paper entitled "Prenatal Exposure to Airborne Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and IQ: Estimated Cost of IQ reduction" addresses the gap in understanding of the potential economic benefits of reducing environmental pollution and estimates the increase in IQ and related lifetime earnings that would be expected in a low- income urban population as a result of a modest reduction of ambient concentrations of the combustion related pollutants, PAH. The dissertation presents these three interrelated original papers providing new evidence supporting a broad, integrated policy that addresses environmental degradation and inequality. These three papers stand on their own as original contributions to the field. By addressing three important research gaps, they provide needed evidence to support greater protection of children through an integrated social and environmental policy.

HIV/AIDS prevalence within correctional settings and among populations with criminal justice histories are several times that of the general population. Despite prior investigations that have empirically identified associations between criminal justice system involvement and HIV risk behavior, few studies have investigated mechanisms of autonomy and relationship dependencies as mediating mechanisms between incarceration history and HIV risk behavioral outcomes. The purpose of this dissertation is to examine the role of relationship dependencies (reliance on a partner for drug and non-drug related expenses) and autonomy (personal access to resources including housing, employment and educational opportunities, relationship dependency) as a pathway linking prior incarceration and HIV risk behavior. An integrated theory combining General Strain Theory and the Theory of Gender and Power informed the hypothesis for this dissertation. It was hypothesized that incarceration history would be associated with HIV risk behaviors among drug involved adults. Relationship dependencies and autonomy was also hypothesized to be associated with HIV risk behaviors among drug involved adults, relationship dependencies and autonomy were hypothesized to mediate any observed positive relationships between incarceration history and HIV risk behavior. This investigation represented a cross-sectional design using a baseline dataset of street recruited heterosexual couples participating in a NIDA funded randomized HIV prevention intervention trial (343 men, 346 women). Findings showed that incarceration had significant associations with HIV risk behaviors including sex exchange, injection drug use and sharing injection equipment among women but not among men. It was also found that autonomy had significant negative relationships with HIV risk indicators among women, with no significant associations being found among men. Multivariate results also suggested that relationship dependencies regarding expenses for drugs were associated with HIV risk indicators including sex exchange and injection drug use for women, and sex exchange for men. Although incarceration history was significantly associated with relationship dependencies for drug expenses among women, there was not sufficient evidence to suggest that relationship dependencies or autonomy were mediating mechanisms of HIV risk outcomes. Results of this study have important implications for the development of practice and policy level harm reduction and HIV prevention interventions for drug involved adults.

Countries with substantial Muslim populations are experiencing rapid changes in HIV prevalence. HIV testing and circumcision, as biomedical interventions, are the focus of this dissertation since biomedical strategies are the among the most efficacious HIV interventions. This dissertation examines the relationship of multilevel effects to HIV stigma, HIV risk behavior, and HIV status with two evidence-based HIV prevention intervention strategies (HIV testing and male circumcision) and a third HIV prevention intervention strategy (female circumcision) that is highly disputed, via three separate and distinct papers. This study is theoretically guided by the Ecological Perspective and the Social Network Conceptual Model. The sample for the first paper on Central Asia includes Kazakhstan (n=14,310), Kyrgyzstan (n=6,493), Uzbekistan (n=13,404), and Tajikistan (n=4,677), for a total n=38,884. The second paper sample is drawn from India: 65,356 men between the ages of 15 and 54. The third paper sample is drawn from Mali: 14,583; all of these participants are ever-married women of reproductive age (15-49 years old). Multilevel modeling was used in all three papers. This innovative methodology produced empirical evidence for the association of context with the behavior of the individual. A finding consistent in all three papers is that: context does matter. This dissertation examines context in terms of family and community membership. Specifically, the context of different levels of stigma and family/community membership impacts individuals' HIV testing and circumcision. In Central Asia, HIV stigma at the individual, family, and community levels is significantly associated with decreased HIV testing uptake and receipt of HIV test results. HIV stigma is associated with male circumcision status (i.e., whether a male is circumcised or uncircumcised) on individual, family, and community levels in India. In Mali, female circumcision was significantly associated with increased odds of HIV positive status, and circumcision status was not associated with HIV risk behavior. Family and community membership was also associated with HIV status and HIV risk behavior in Mali. The findings of the dissertation have important implications for practice, policy, and research.

The three papers included in this dissertation are based on data from a larger cross-sectional survey study which explores the causes and patterns of sexual aggression by adolescent males incarcerated in residential treatment. The sample of interest included 504 male adolescents who were adjudicated delinquent and sanctioned to residential treatment for the commission of sexual and non-sexual crimes. Paper 1 includes a descriptive snapshot of the individual and family characteristics, childhood experiences, child maltreatment histories, childhood exposure to nudity and sexual activity, sexual crime characteristics, as well as non-sexual crime characteristics of juvenile sex offenders in residential treatment. Paper 2 focuses on the family characteristics and childhood experiences that predict group membership in juvenile sex offender and juvenile delinquent groups. Finally, paper 3 explores those factors associated with the severity of sexual crime as well as the frequency of general delinquency among juvenile sex offenders in residential treatment.