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Tipping is a unique phenomenon. There are various economic theories on the rationale behind tipping behaviour; two mainstream views are the narrow neoclassical view and the open-ended behavioural view. However, neither of these views provides complete explanations and insights into tipping behaviour. Tipping is a very important economic activity that accounts for a substantial part of our expenditures. Therefore the motives behind tipping should be a critical concern to us and there is a need to conduct in-depth analysis on tipping as an economic activity. <p> This study sets out to improve our understanding of tipping behaviour. In order to achieve this, possible socio-economic motives behind tipping are identified. There is an attempt to verify these motives with empirical evidence obtained in this study. A survey on restaurant tipping was designed and implemented, prompting respondents for their tip percentages as if they were dining in a restaurant. Using information so obtained, the socio-economic factors that influence individuals tipping behaviour was determined by econometric analysis.<p>Based on the results of this study, individuals may be tipping to conform to social norms, to be altruistic and to encourage better future service. Service quality, the tippers ethnic background and the tippers area of study seem to be the major determinants of tip percentages. Poor service is the main factor causing individuals to decide not to tip in a restaurant. An interesting finding is that individuals fail to accurately convert their expressed tip percentages to dollar amounts. This implies that individuals may be cognitively constrained. <p> Another noteworthy outcome is that 26% of all respondents choose to tip even when service is poor and when they are dining in a restaurant they will never visit again. This leads to the concept of a core and marginal tip. Without future service considerations, the mean tip when service is poor can be viewed as the core tip that is likely shaped by social norms and altruism. The marginal tip can be viewed as the increment in tips when service improves. Results of this study lead to the conclusion that tipping is a multi-faceted phenomenon. It is influenced by a number of different motives; therefore it is better explained by a combination of neoclassical and behavioural theories.

Successful interaction with the external world requires continual sensory detection, sensorimotor translations and goal-directed motor execution. Attention to task-relevant stimulation can facilitate sensory detection and improve behavioural performance. Crossmodal visual and somatosensory interaction within early sensory regions appears to further enhance processing, but required stimulus congruency for optimal sensorimotor communication is relatively unknown. This thesis first investigates the impact of visual-tactile temporal presentation on somatosensory activation within healthy young adults. As expected, findings revealed simultaneous crossmodal stimulation to maximally augment tactile event-related potentials (ERPs). These results were subsequently applied to determine the influence of attentional or low-level priming effects on motor performance within young and older adults. The bulk of this thesis assesses whether crossmodal interaction is similarly influential across age. Task-relevant visual-tactile stimulation was predicted to facilitate sensory regions and improve motor behaviour for both young and older subjects. Visual distraction was expected to limit tactile processing and impair performance only within older subjects. Tactile (P50, P100, N140, P230) and visual (N1) ERPs were recorded from 32 channels while healthy young and older subjects preformed a sensory integration task. Three conditions varying in modality of stimulation (tactile/visual) and task relevancy (relevant/irrelevant) required subjects to attend to stimuli and make an appropriately graded motor response. Blocked training prior to collection ensured stimulus-response associations and task demands were learned. Individual ERPs were time-locked to the onset of the first or second stimulus and quantified at CP3, CP4, FCZ, O1 and O2. Despite evidence of age-dependent effects in tactile processing, grand average waveforms suggest older adults maintain the ability to selectively attend to task-relevant information. Improved motor accuracy was not associated with crossmodal facilitation in either age group, however results indicate that performance of older adults declines with visual distraction. Differential N1 modulation across age suggests younger adults disengage from visual distraction after initial saliency (earlier latency with second distractor), while older adults may use a conscious strategy to shift attention away from distraction (latency unchanged but reduced amplitude with second distractor). Overall, these results follow previous studies and suggest older adults compensate for a general increase in processing background information by altering performance strategy. This vulnerability to distraction appears to negatively impact motor performance even within healthy aged adults.

Fine motor control of the hand relies on intact somatosensory integration and feedback. Impaired hand movements are observed in patient groups where touch perception and processing within the primary somatosensory cortex (SI) is abnormal. A repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation paradigm called continuous theta-burst stimulation (cTBS) can be used to induce physiological changes to the underlying cortex. The effect of cTBS on tactile perception is unknown. This Master’s research thesis examined the effect of cTBS over SI on tactile discrimination on the hand in healthy humans. Specifically, the goal of this thesis was to reveal the modulatory effects of cTBS on tactile temporal and spatial psychophysical measures on the hand. In separate experiments, temporal discrimination threshold (TDT) and the spatial measure of amplitude discrimination were measured from the right hand before and for up to 35 minutes following cTBS over left SI. Compared to pre cTBS values, TDT was elevated immediately following cTBS (3-6 minutes) and at later intervals (11-18 minutes). Spatial tactile perception was also measured through amplitude discrimination over the same time course and compared to pre cTBS values thresholds were impaired for up to 18 minutes. These experiments reveal that cTBS over SI impairs tactile acuity on the contralateral hand. The effects last for up to 18 minutes and subsequent measures return to pre cTBS levels. This work is important in identifying means to modulate SI cortical excitability and has potential for clinical application in patient groups with altered somatosensory processing.

Tipping is a unique phenomenon. There are various economic theories on the rationale behind tipping behaviour; two mainstream views are the narrow neoclassical view and the open-ended behavioural view. However, neither of these views provides complete explanations and insights into tipping behaviour. Tipping is a very important economic activity that accounts for a substantial part of our expenditures. Therefore the motives behind tipping should be a critical concern to us and there is a need to conduct in-depth analysis on tipping as an economic activity. <p> This study sets out to improve our understanding of tipping behaviour. In order to achieve this, possible socio-economic motives behind tipping are identified. There is an attempt to verify these motives with empirical evidence obtained in this study. A survey on restaurant tipping was designed and implemented, prompting respondents for their tip percentages as if they were dining in a restaurant. Using information so obtained, the socio-economic factors that influence individuals tipping behaviour was determined by econometric analysis.<p>Based on the results of this study, individuals may be tipping to conform to social norms, to be altruistic and to encourage better future service. Service quality, the tippers ethnic background and the tippers area of study seem to be the major determinants of tip percentages. Poor service is the main factor causing individuals to decide not to tip in a restaurant. An interesting finding is that individuals fail to accurately convert their expressed tip percentages to dollar amounts. This implies that individuals may be cognitively constrained. <p> Another noteworthy outcome is that 26% of all respondents choose to tip even when service is poor and when they are dining in a restaurant they will never visit again. This leads to the concept of a core and marginal tip. Without future service considerations, the mean tip when service is poor can be viewed as the core tip that is likely shaped by social norms and altruism. The marginal tip can be viewed as the increment in tips when service improves. Results of this study lead to the conclusion that tipping is a multi-faceted phenomenon. It is influenced by a number of different motives; therefore it is better explained by a combination of neoclassical and behavioural theories.

Successful interaction with the external world requires continual sensory detection, sensorimotor translations and goal-directed motor execution. Attention to task-relevant stimulation can facilitate sensory detection and improve behavioural performance. Crossmodal visual and somatosensory interaction within early sensory regions appears to further enhance processing, but required stimulus congruency for optimal sensorimotor communication is relatively unknown. This thesis first investigates the impact of visual-tactile temporal presentation on somatosensory activation within healthy young adults. As expected, findings revealed simultaneous crossmodal stimulation to maximally augment tactile event-related potentials (ERPs). These results were subsequently applied to determine the influence of attentional or low-level priming effects on motor performance within young and older adults. The bulk of this thesis assesses whether crossmodal interaction is similarly influential across age. Task-relevant visual-tactile stimulation was predicted to facilitate sensory regions and improve motor behaviour for both young and older subjects. Visual distraction was expected to limit tactile processing and impair performance only within older subjects. Tactile (P50, P100, N140, P230) and visual (N1) ERPs were recorded from 32 channels while healthy young and older subjects preformed a sensory integration task. Three conditions varying in modality of stimulation (tactile/visual) and task relevancy (relevant/irrelevant) required subjects to attend to stimuli and make an appropriately graded motor response. Blocked training prior to collection ensured stimulus-response associations and task demands were learned. Individual ERPs were time-locked to the onset of the first or second stimulus and quantified at CP3, CP4, FCZ, O1 and O2. Despite evidence of age-dependent effects in tactile processing, grand average waveforms suggest older adults maintain the ability to selectively attend to task-relevant information. Improved motor accuracy was not associated with crossmodal facilitation in either age group, however results indicate that performance of older adults declines with visual distraction. Differential N1 modulation across age suggests younger adults disengage from visual distraction after initial saliency (earlier latency with second distractor), while older adults may use a conscious strategy to shift attention away from distraction (latency unchanged but reduced amplitude with second distractor). Overall, these results follow previous studies and suggest older adults compensate for a general increase in processing background information by altering performance strategy. This vulnerability to distraction appears to negatively impact motor performance even within healthy aged adults.

Chronic non-specific low back pain (CNSLBP) is prevalent in the Canadian Forces. Physiotherapists use behavioural change techniques (BCT) to challenge maladaptive cognitions and behaviours in the treatment of CNSLBP. The aim of this study was to determine the range and type of BCT used in the “Back to Fitness” class at CFB Halifax. A nomenclature integrating a psychology BCT checklist and relevant physiotherapy literature was used to create a physiotherapist BCT checklist tool that was piloted in a field study. A wide range (n=24) and type (cognitive, behavioural and motivational) of BCT were identified in three settings (lecture, two exercise sessions). The nomenclature produced in this first examination of BCT in physiotherapy practice, will be useful for future research and training. This project revealed an overlap between psychology and physiotherapy that could lead to improved interprofessional communication and earlier access to behaviour change interventions for patients with CNSLBP.

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