This research explores the ways in which local knowledge, attitudes and beliefs surrounding disability influence the socially constructed experience of autism in Ghana. It further explores the impact of these beliefs on educational access, policy and provision as well as on inclusion in wider society for both children with autism and their families. It is argued throughout that conceptualisations of both autism and disability are subtly, and at times unconsciously, shaped by cultural influences as well as individual experiences. Using semi-structured interviews, participatory methods and text analysis, this thesis first examines internationally accepted diagnostic criteria for cultural relevancy and concludes that while 'autism'does indeed transcend cultural barriers, its presentation is nonetheless culturally bound. The presentation of each of autism's 'triad of impairments' is explored in Ghana, namely communication and socialisation impairments alongside a restricted range of interests and repetitive behaviour patterns. Significantly, the experience of autism demonstrated in this thesis, at both a personal and familial level, is linked to, and negotiated through, cultural belief systems. A relatively shared 'worldview', understood as the culturally mediated lens through which autism and impairment are understood and managed in Ghanaian society, is outlined. Traditional values, a deep sense of spirituality and communal kinship responsibilities are highlighted. Next, an exploration of causal attributions, valued and de-valued personhood traits and the expected role of an adult in society each highlights significant influences on the perception and management of autism in Ghana. Throughout, this thesis focuses on the impact of autism, as constructed and understood in urban Ghana, on the individual, one's kin and broader society. The second half of this thesis focuses on educational access, policy and provision with particular attention to Ghana's burgeoning inclusive education efforts. Conceptualisations of disability and difference, as negotiated through Ghanaian culture, norms and history are explored alongside the implications of these beliefs in designing educational provision for students with autism as well as the socio-political pressures to adhere to large scale international movements such as Education for All (EFA). In particular, tensions between local and international conceptualisations of 'disability' and 'inclusion' are highlighted and it is concluded that adoption of international declarations into local policy, and subsequently into local practice, needs to be better negotiated alongside culturally relevant systems and beliefs. International declarations, rooted in a social model of disability, are found to clash with local conceptualisations of disability rooted in an often intuitive understanding of disability consistent with an individual model. However, consistency with an individual model did not equate to biomedical understandings of disability, which was instead mediated through a lens of socialrelational causation and management more consistent with religious or cultural models of disability. It is concluded that acknowledging and respecting Ghanaian understandings of disability is a prerequisite to ensuring inclusion of children with autism, both in education and their community. Adoption of laudable rights based international declarations must also ensure adaptation to local culture and context. Conclusions and recommendations for synergy between advocacy for, and education of, students with autism in Ghana are proffered.

The main research topic of this study is universities' academic research and knowledge-transfer activities in a catch-up country, particularly the relationship between the two activities, which has been rarely examined in previous research. In order to understand this issue against existing literature, a critical review of previous studies has been attempted, considering the idiosyncratic characteristics of the Korean national innovation system. As a result, at the three analysis levels (i.e. national, organisational and individual levels), we propose three conceptual elements respectively: a tentative historical path of universities in catch-up countries; critical factors influencing knowledge transfer activities of universities in catch-up countries; and academics operating in synergy mode. Thereafter, based on the methodology integrating not only the three analysis levels but also qualitative and quantitative approaches, we analyse the data collected from the interviews with Korean academics, survey responses from Korean academics and government White Papers on the activities of Korean universities. The results show a close and positive relationship between Korean universities' academic research and knowledge-transfer activities across the three levels. Firstly, during the last several decades, the Korean government has strongly encouraged the development of teaching, academic research and knowledge-transfer activities of Korean universities in harmony with the different developmental stages of Korean industry. This has resulted in selective patterns of the universities' three activities (e.g. concentration of scientific activities in certain fields). Secondly, organisational factors such as scientific capacity and industry funding are important for universities' knowledge-transfer activities in a catch-up country, which corroborates the positive relationship between the two activities. Finally, in terms of the factors influencing the synergy mode (i.e. a positive relationship between academic research and knowledge-transfer activities), academics' career stage and disciplines are important. This is related to the rapid expansion of the Korean academic system and the selectivity found in its activities. Based on these findings, it is tempting to conclude that universities in East Asian catch-up countries have developed their own academic system different from those in developed countries, which can be characterised as having strong government control and a high level of interaction with other actors in the national innovation system. Therefore, the application of the controversy over the direct economic contribution of universities in western countries to the context of catch-up countries is quite limited.

In 1987, the Government of Ghana embarked on a process to decentralise education management to districts throughout the country as part of a programme of wider social and democratic governance reforms. A vital element of this reform was the prescription of active community participation in the affairs of schools within their localities. The establishment of school management committees (SMCs) was to create a new school governance landscape based on community participation, as well as devolution of power to the metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies. In this regard, considerable attention has been focused on central government‟s understanding of how this devolution of authority to communities and schools should work and how communities should assume responsibility for increased participation in schools. From the inception of this policy over two decades ago, there seems to have been no feedback through research findings or diagnostic policy reviews on how this new role of the community has been received, interpreted and executed in its engagement with schools, particularly in the rural poor and underserved areas. Mindful of this, this study sought to explore the multiple understandings of how community and school relations work, as well as the challenges and pressures which influence community – school relationships. The study employed the qualitative methods of interview and documentary analysis to collect data on the understanding and experiences of community – school relations from SMCs and PTAs; other members of the community; the school; and education management. The findings suggest that many of the theoretical and policy expectations about representation and participation in school improvement through the SMC and PTA concept are only evident in form and not in practice. Furthermore, in poor rural contexts, it is often the comparatively better educated and influential members of the community, including informal groups who become the new brokers of decision-making, and who through their actions close spaces for the genuine representation and participation of others. In some cases, SMCs seldom work as the de facto representatives of the community, as decisions are made and critical interactions occur outside this formal structure for community representation and engagement in school governance. This affects the visibility of SMCs and undermines their credibility and capacity to play their intended role. Moreover, the degree of community participation in schools appears to be shaped by the school fulfilling community expectations of schooling and on a „social contract‟ based on the principle of reciprocity. These findings support the view that the fate of schools is increasingly tied to and powerfully shaped by key players at the local level, and that this happens through more informal and traditional roles which are more trusted but not necessarily representative of the image presented by policy on community participation in school governance. The findings also highlight the threat to voluntarism, a key assumption of the policy on community participation and the importance of seeking ways in which schools can play a more active role as change agents in the community, thereby legitimising in the community‟s eyes their importance in the life of the community.

Since the advent of international assistance, the aid paradigm has changed continually and the choice of mechanisms for providing assistance has evolved in order to try and pursue better approaches. Along with the traditional project approach, the sector-wide approach involving budgetary support has emerged as a new aid modality since the mid-1990s. While many donors – e.g. the UK Department for International Development (DFID), the World Bank and the European Union (EU) – have embraced the new modality, some donors have kept their distance from this trend, relying mostly on project assistance – e.g. United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). However, the extent to which aid resources are absorbed in the recipient government/sector under the different aid delivery mechanisms is not well known. This thesis provides insight into this question by exploring the process of absorbing foreign funds in the education sector. Employing a phenomenological research approach, the process is examined from the point of view of local actors and beneficiaries of aid aimed at improving education quality. The context chosen is basic education (primary and junior secondary) in Ghana after the introduction of the national basic education reform, which was announced as the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) programme in 1996. Two cases are chosen for comparison: the Whole School Development (WSD) programme financed by the DFID; and the Quality Improvements in Primary Schools (QUIPS) programme facilitated by USAID. The former constitutes a sector-wide type of assistance, which put Ghanaian officials in charge of DFID funds and the implementation of the programme; while the latter adopted a project type model, with implementation managed directly through a USAIDfunded project office. The major part of the data is derived from interviews conducted in 2006 with significant educational personnel at three different levels: Ministry of Education (MoE) headquarters, the District Education Office (DEO), and the schools). The analysis reveals a complex picture of aid absorption, which illuminates the pros and cons of the two approaches in relation to impact and sustainability. The study finds that the QUIPS project achieved tangible results in the pilot schools, while the WSD programme made little impact at the school level. The WSD programme, which used existing structures within the education system to deliver funds and resources to schools, showed evidence of high fungibility, but appears to have strengthened the Ministry‟s administrative capacity. On the other hand, the QUIPS approach, which had low fungibility, has been severely criticised by Ghanaian officials, who questioned its sustainability and contribution to system-wide change. The thesis concludes by stating its specific contribution to the literature on international aid assistance to developing countries and making recommendations for the Ghanaian context.

This thesis critically analysed the influence of the Libyan public examination on English Language Teaching (ELT) and on learning strategies and practice in secondary school classrooms. It investigated the washback of the Secondary Education Certificate Examination (SECE) on ELT teachers and explored practitioners’ perceptions and practices. It also examined washback on students’ perception, motivation, learning strategies and outcomes. Weir’s socio-cognitive framework for test validity was chosen as a conceptual framework for its capability of conceptualising appropriate evidence on how testing constructs (policy & design) are operationalised and interpreted (use) in practice. This thesis describes an interpretative qualitative case study research conducted in the south west of Libya. Data were generated through interviews, classroom observation and document analysis. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with two ELT teachers and inspectors, a school headteacher and a representative of the examination office. Group interviews were also conducted with a number of the final year secondary school students within the research context. All the research data were analysed using a thematic data analysis. The findings reveal that the lack of alignment between the focus of the English SECE and the objectives of the curriculum had a significant adverse effect on the Libyan ELT teachers, inspectors and students’ perceptions about the aim and the value of ELT in the school education and their role within the policy as well as on Libyan school students’ motivation. The study participants held the perception that developing language skills is not the aim of teaching English in Libyan secondary school since these skills have never been assessed in public examinations despite their integration in the curriculum. The Libyan ELT teachers and inspectors prioritised the aim of completing the curriculum through the use of traditional approaches of teacher-centred and Grammar Translation Method(GTM) and teaching to the test rather than meeting the pedagogical objectives of ELT or implementing the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) proposed in the school curriculum. The Libyan on-going conflict, the public examination policy, and teachers’lack of assessment literacy were also significant on classroom testing. Students were largely passive in English classrooms as teaching focused on the SECE. Accordingly, students utilised different learning strategies to cope with the teaching such as prioritising the translation of textbook texts, relying on rote-learning, engaging in test-preparation activities and developing test-taking strategies. Evidence accumulated through this study clearly indicates that Libyan students’ experience of the public examination had a significant effect on their attitudes, perceptions and choice of learning strategies. This finding represented an important implication for developing the socio-cognitive framework for test validity. The public examination strategies improved the Libyan secondary school students’ examination performance in the SECE but not their English learning outcomes. The examination content and format as well as a social acceptance of cheating all have a significant effect on students’ performance in the SECE and threaten its score validity.

Nowadays, the dynamic, global economic environment is presenting the sector for higher education within developing countries with numerous challenges. Increasing demand and rapid technological changes mean that knowledge and knowledge sharing (KS) are now recognised as key resources for organisations to gain competitive advantage. The management of knowledge and promotion of KS amongst organisational members have been shown to be key elements of the process of learning since they assist in the conversion of tacit knowledge of individuals by way of interaction into knowledge that is explicit. Previous literature noted that KS is a key factor for knowledge management and it also enhances organisational knowledge sharing behaviour (KSB). Within developing countries, especially Iraq, however, institutions for higher education tend to lack KSB. This study has aimed at assessing the attitudes, perceptions and behaviours of academics and the identification of factors that support or hinder KSB of academics within developing countries, with a particular focus upon Baghdad University as a prime example for the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) region. An approach with mono-methods was used, i.e. a survey; a total of 326 responses were gathered that were valid so that testing could be done of the relationship between the dependent variable KSB and the independent variables; attitude towards knowledge sharing (ATT), subjective norm (SN), and perceived behavioural control (PBC). Through the use of AMOS Version 23 software and the structural equation modelling (SEM) software of IBM (Version 23), the research project discovered that the aforementioned predictors played a key role for KSB relationships in the Iraqi setting. Cultural differences and similarities were shown by the multi-group SEM in relation to the effects upon the university, and the results make a significant contribution to KSB theory in relation to, and in support of, the ATT, SN and PBC predictors. A deeper understanding is also provided of those relationships for educational environments in developing countries, particularly Iraq – a setting that previous research has overlooked. A more lucid picture is provided, then, of the position for Baghdad University and, with regard to the practical implications of the study, the survey results have shown that educational institutions seeking to embed knowledge sharing strategies would find it beneficial to spend time and energy upon communication, training and the exchange of knowledge skills and upon the development of relationships amongst their employees.

This study examined teachers and learners’ beliefs about teaching English grammar at Tripoli University. It explored the role of grammar in this context and the optimal method or approach of teaching grammar in such a context. The present investigation aimed at identifying the causes behind the learners’ difficulties in using their knowledge of grammar to communicate effectively and the challenges, which confront the lecturers when dealing with grammar instruction. Grammar teaching has been and continues to be a source of controversy, and heated debate, which has led many second language researchers to rethink the status of grammar in language learning and teaching. Grammar has often generated conflicting views. Thornbury (2009) argues that no other issue has preoccupied theorists and practitioners as much as the grammar debate which has brought about a split of views, specifically into those who claim that grammar should not be taught at all, and others who believe that grammar should be given a central role in English language teaching . In order to achieve reliable and valid results, this research employed a mixed methods approach, since relying on one single research approach and strategy could reduce the effectiveness of this study. The underpinning philosophy identifying this study is positivism because of the large amount of quantitative data. The justification for combining a quantitative and qualitative research approach is related to the purpose of the study, the nature of the problem and research questions. Accordingly, quantitative data were collected through a questionnaire involving students at the English language department at Tripoli University. This was supported by qualitative data collected by using semi- structured interviews for lecturers teaching grammar at the English department. The findings of this study showed that students and lecturers at Tripoli University valued the role of grammar instruction and that it should be recognised in all the different skills. The findings also revealed that the participants were unhappy with the way grammar is taught in lectures. They also suggested that further research be conducted in all the different teaching skills. This study is pertinent because it has academic value. It has added to the literature on the importance of English grammar and contribute to the ongoing debate of whether grammar should be taught or acquired. In addition, it will benefit the students and lecturers in developing communicative competence by enhancing grammar teaching. It will raise awareness about the challenges of teaching English grammar in Libya and benefit future researchers interested in the teaching of grammar.

In spite of improving the library performance (LP) of academic libraries (ALs) is based on a set of standards and criteria, improving the SPALs is relied on the vision of the ALs’ decision-makers; and subjected by a number of barriers that hinder improvement. This research aims to improve the LP of the Arab International University (AIU) in Syria. The focus is made to achieve improvement based on the end-users’ expectations and requirements (EUERs). Thus, identifying the EUERs is aimed in this research also. Data was collected by adopting a mixed methods approach, embraced to a single case study (LAIU). Primary quantitative data was collected by distributing two questionnaires to the end-users (undergraduates & academics). A printed-format questionnaire was designed for the undergraduates, while the academics’ questionnaire was designed using Smart-survey. The aim of these questionnaires was to understand the end-users’ perspectives, expectations, and their requirements of the LAIU. 11 semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 librarians and 3 administrators to identify the situation of the LAIU, and understand the library staffs’ perspectives about the EUERs and end-users’ ISB. SOWT analysis was used to address the strengths, weakness, and threats facing the library, and their suggestions to improve the LP. Furthermore, the analysis of the secondary statistics collected from the LAIU and related websites took place in this study to support the primary data collected. A total of 228 undergraduates, and 30 academics have participated in this study. The data collected from the questionnaires were analysed using PASW software; version 18.0, while the collected data of the interviews was analysed thematically using NVivo 10.0 software. To maximise the outputs of the research and understand the holistic situation of the LAIU, the tools of the SSM were implemented. This assists in identifying the problematic areas of the situation. A number of challenges and barriers have been discovered relating to four categories: EUERs, end-users’ information-seeking behaviour, end-users’ satisfaction, and the LP. The analysis showed that although the EUERs are academic in the first place, there are differences regarding their demographic variables. It presented that end-users are not strongly satisfied with their LP. Furthermore, the findings reflected the need to improve the LP. They addressed the end-users’ behavior during their journey in seeking information. Based on the use of the rich picture, these barriers have been classified into internal and external barriers. The focus was limited to investigate internal barriers. Additionally, the implementation of the SSM’s tools helps in developing the root definitions and related conceptual models that led to improving the situation of the LAIU. This study contributes to establish an appropriate and vital strategy to improve the LP based on a set of recommendation driven from the implementation of the SSM’s tools. It contributes to generate the S-diamond model addressing the requirements of improvement. It develops a model of the end-users’ ISB in the SPALs. Furthermore, this study reflects a theoretical significance by providing unique findings discovering the relationships between the themes under the investigation (EUERs, LP, end-users’ ISB, and EUS).

The overarching purpose of this study is to discover the ability of the heads of department to make decisions in universities in Libya. This was accomplished through the examination of three main aims: firstly, to examine the level of department heads' ability to make decisions; Secondly, to determine the level of department heads' ability to make decisions according to certain fields of study including the decision making concept, the stages of making the decision, objectivity, flexibility, quality, control, and communication; and thirdly, and finally, to examine if there are any differences in the level of department heads' ability to make decisions attributed to the variables of scientific qualification, experience, gender, age, and specialization. The data collection tools consisted of two main dimensions including one hour interviews with 11 heads of department in Libyan universities and a questionnaire distributed to heads of department in Libyan Universities. The semi-structured interviews included two phases with initial interviews carried out with 11 heads of department at Libyan Universities during the summer of 2008. The researcher then undertook further in-depth interviews that were carried out during the summer of 2009 with the same 11 heads of department at Libyan universities in order to gather rich data about the topic under scrutiny. Over the course of reading some of the interviews, the researcher analyzed the statements that reflected the respondents' actions and views. The questionnaire distributed to heads of department in Libyan universities included a total sample of 500 heads of department and questionnaires were handed out and collected in person by the researcher. The response rate was high with 448 completed questionnaires collected in addition to 2 forms that were returned without being completed. All statistical analyses of the data were accomplished using the statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) software (version 16). As will be revealed in the presentation of findings provided later in this study, the level of the ability of the heads of department to make decisions overall was considered to be high and the most important factor which helped the heads of department to make good decisions in Libyan universities was perceived to be the length of experience as a head of department. All heads of department felt that theydemonstrated a high level of ability to make decisions according to the fields of the study, which included the decision-making concept, the stages of making the decision, objectivity, flexibility, quality, control, and communication. However, all heads believed that there were differences in decision-making ability according to such factors as gender, age group, and whether a scientific or humanities based departments. It is suggested that the results of the study may help in developing education administration and management at universities in Libya and internationally. Recommendations for practice are provided including the suggestions that better selection and training of heads of department are crucial if the ability of heads of department to make decisions is to be improved. It should be noted that the study relied on the perceptions of the heads of department and although respondents noted comparatively few differences in the quality of decision-making ability based on the level of qualification or training there was a strong consensus that good decision making was contingent upon level of experience. Findings suggest that more rigorous pre-service and in-service training will enable heads of department to act with confidence in their decision making from an earlier point in their career. Moreover, the researcher proposes that best practice in other developed systems of higher education suggests that heads of department in Libyan universities require more systematic training in the softer leadership and management skills relating to human resource management.

This study is concerned with the interaction between education and conflict in Nepal. It examines the contentious role of education in the emergence and growth of the 'People's War' in 1996 and investigates the impact of the uprising on Nepal's school education. Then, the study identifies various implications of the decade-long civil war for the post-conflict educational reconstruction. The study was carried out employing narrative inquiry as a research approach, in eight schools selected from six different geopolitical districts of Nepal including, Doti, Rolpa, Kapilvastu, Kathmandu, Udaypur and Sankhuwasabha. The data was primarily collected from June to October in 2008 in the form of stories of the participants' experiences during the conflict by using interviews, focus group discussions and narrative writing tasks with a total of 427 research participants including teachers, head teachers, children and their parents. The study reveals that education in Nepal played a complicit role in conflict, primarily benefitting the traditionally privileged social groups in Nepali society and hence, perpetuating the existing structural inequalities, which were the major causes of the civil war. During the conflict, schools were trapped in the middle and teachers and children were abducted and maimed by both the Maoists and security forces. Schools also became prolific sites for political campaigns and recruitment for the Maoists. It was found that the violent conflict had caused a significant loss of teachers' professional motivation and increased their loyalty to political parties instead of the government that ostensibly failed to provide for their personal as well as professional security during and after the conflict. It was also found that educational processes such as teacher recruitment and redeployment, school upgrading, and selection of school management committees were often politicised whilst symbolising community schools as the political entities. The study finally highlights that the post-war political transition has offered an immense opportunity to restructure the education system by recognising the cultural and social diversity of Nepal and addressing the problematic role of education in reproducing the social order. It is recommended that the post-conflict reconstruction should adopt a 'conflict- sensitive' approach to address the structural issues of educational inequity, social exclusion, and political hegemony of the privileged social groups. Hence, the study suggests that peacebuilding involves a process of social transformation in which education can play a significant role by promoting social and political structures that nurture peace with social justice.