Les canaux potassiques voltage-dépendants forment des tétramères dont chaque sous-unité comporte six segments transmembranaires (S1 à S6). Le pore, formé des segments S5-S6 de chaque sous-unité, est entouré de quatre domaines responsables de la sensibilité au potentiel membranaire, les senseurs de voltage (VS; S1-S4). Lors d’une dépolarisation membranaire, le mouvement des résidus chargés situés dans le VS entraine un mouvement de charges détectable en électrophysiologie, le courant de « gating ». L’activation du VS conduit à l'ouverture du pore, qui se traduit par un changement de conformation en C-terminal du segment S6. Pour élucider les principes qui sous-tendent le couplage électromécanique entre ces deux domaines, nous avons étudié deux régions présumées responsables du couplage chez les canaux de type Shaker K+, soit la région carboxy-terminale du segment S6 et le lien peptidique reliant les segments transmembranaire S4-S5 (S4-5L). Avec la technique du « cut-open voltage clamp fluorometry » (COVCF), nous avons pu déterminer que l’interaction inter-sous-unitaire RELY, formée par des acides aminés situés sur le lien S4-5L et S6 de deux sous-unités voisines, est impliquée dans le développement de la composante lente observée lors du retour des charges de « gating » vers leur état de repos, le « OFF-gating ». Nous avons observé que l’introduction de mutations dans la région RELY module la force de ces interactions moléculaires et élimine l’asymétrie observée dans les courants de « gating » de type sauvage. D’ailleurs, nous démontrons que ce couplage inter-sous-unitaire est responsable de la stabilisation du pore dans l’état ouvert. Nous avons également identifié une interaction intra-sous-unitaire entre les résidus I384 situé sur le lien S4-5L et F484 sur le segment S6 d’une même sous-unité. La déstabilisation de cette interaction hydrophobique découple complètement le mouvement des senseurs de voltage et l'ouverture du pore. Sans cette interaction, l’énergie nécessaire pour activer les VS est moindre en raison de l’absence du poids mécanique appliqué par le pore. De plus, l’abolition du couplage électromécanique élimine également le « mode shift », soit le déplacement de la dépendance au voltage des charges de transfert (QV) vers des potentiels hyperpolarisants. Ceci indique que le poids mécanique du pore imposé au VS entraine le « mode shift », en modulant la conformation intrinsèque du VS par un processus allostérique. / Voltage-gated potassium channels are tetramers and each subunit is formed of six transmembrane segments (S1 to S6). The pore, formed by the S5-S6 segments of each subunit, is surrounded by four modules responsible for sensitivity to the membrane potential, the voltage sensors (VS, S1-S4). During membrane depolarization, the movement of charged residues located in the VS causes a detectable charge movement called the gating current. The activation of the VS led to the opening of the pore, resulting in a conformational change in the C-terminal segment of S6. To elucidate the principles underlying the electromechanical coupling between these two domains, we examined two regions presumed responsible for the coupling among channels of the Shaker K + family: the carboxy-terminal region of S6 and the peptide bond linking the transmembrane segments S4-S5 (S4-5L). Using the cut-open voltage clamp fluorometry (COVCF), we have determined that the RELY inter-subunit interaction, formed by amino acids located on the S4-5L linker and S6 of two neighboring subunits, is involved in the development of the slow component observed during the return of the gating charges (OFF-gating) to their resting state. The introduction of mutations in the RELY region modulates the strength of these molecular interactions and eliminates the asymmetry observed in the wild type gating currents. Moreover, we demonstrate that this inter-subunit coupling is responsible for stabilizing the pore in the open state. We have also identified an intra-subunit interaction between residues I384 located on the S4-5L linker and F484 on the S6 segment of the same subunit. The destabilization of this hydrophobic interaction uncouples completely the movement of voltage sensors from pore opening. Without this interaction, the energy required to activate the VS is diminished due to the absence of mechanical weight applied by the pore. Furthermore, this uncoupling also eliminates the "mode shift", defined as an amplified shift of the voltage dependence of gating charge (QV) to hyperpolarizing potentials during prolonged depolarization, thus indicating that the mechanical load of the pore influences the entry of the VS into this shifted mode by modulating the conformation of the VS threw an intrinsic allosteric process.

Les résultats présentés dans cette thèse précisent certains aspects de la fonction du cotransporteur Na+/glucose (SGLT1), une protéine transmembranaire qui utilise le gradient électrochimique favorable des ions Na+ afin d’accumuler le glucose à l’intérieur des cellules épithéliales de l’intestin grêle et du rein. Nous avons tout d’abord utilisé l’électrophysiologie à deux microélectrodes sur des ovocytes de xénope afin d’identifier les ions qui constituaient le courant de fuite de SGLT1, un courant mesuré en absence de glucose qui est découplé de la stoechiométrie stricte de 2 Na+/1 glucose caractérisant le cotransport. Nos résultats ont démontré que des cations comme le Li+, le K+ et le Cs+, qui n’interagissent que faiblement avec les sites de liaison de SGLT1 et ne permettent pas les conformations engendrées par la liaison du Na+, pouvaient néanmoins générer un courant de fuite d’amplitude comparable à celui mesuré en présence de Na+. Ceci suggère que le courant de fuite traverse SGLT1 en utilisant une voie de perméation différente de celle définie par les changements de conformation propres au cotransport Na+/glucose, possiblement similaire à celle empruntée par la perméabilité à l’eau passive. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons cherché à estimer la vitesse des cycles de cotransport de SGLT1 à l’aide de la technique de la trappe ionique, selon laquelle le large bout d’une électrode sélective (~100 μm) est pressé contre la membrane plasmique d’un ovocyte et circonscrit ainsi un petit volume de solution extracellulaire que l’on nomme la trappe. Les variations de concentration ionique se produisant dans la trappe en conséquence de l’activité de SGLT1 nous ont permis de déduire que le cotransport Na+/glucose s’effectuait à un rythme d’environ 13 s-1 lorsque le potentiel membranaire était fixé à -155 mV. Suite à cela, nous nous sommes intéressés au développement d’un modèle cinétique de SGLT1. En se servant de l’algorithme du recuit simulé, nous avons construit un schéma cinétique à 7 états reproduisant de façon précise les courants du cotransporteur en fonction du Na+ et du glucose extracellulaire. Notre modèle prédit qu’en présence d’une concentration saturante de glucose, la réorientation dans la membrane de SGLT1 suivant le relâchement intracellulaire de ses substrats est l’étape qui limite la vitesse de cotransport. / The results presented in this thesis clarify certain functional aspects of the Na+/glucose cotransporter (SGLT1), a membrane protein which uses the downhill electrochemical gradient of Na+ ions to drive the accumulation of glucose in epithelial cells of the small intestine and the kidney. We first used two microelectrodes electrophysiology on Xenopus oocytes to indentify the ionic species mediating the leak current of SGLT1, a current measured in the absence of glucose that is uncoupled from the strict 2 Na+/1 glucose stoichiometry characterising cotransport. Our results showed that cations such as Li+, K+ and Cs+, which interact weakly with SGLT1 binding sites and are unable to generate the conformational changes that are triggered by Na+ binding, were however able to generate leak currents similar in amplitude to the one measured in the presence of Na+. This suggests that the leak current permeating through SGLT1 does so using a pathway that differs from the conformational changes associated with Na+/glucose cotransport. Moreover, it was found that the cationic leak and the passive water permeability could share a common pathway. We then sought to estimate the turnover rate of SGLT1 using the ion-trap technique, where a large tip ion-selective electrode (~100 μm) is pushed against the oocyte plasma membrane, thus enclosing a small volume of extracellular solution referred to as the trap. The variations in ionic concentration occurring in the trap as a consequence of SGLT1 activity made it possible to assess that the turnover rate of Na+/glucose cotransport was 13 s-1 when the membrane potential was clamped to -155 mV. As a last project, we focused our interest on the development of a kinetic model for SGLT1. Taking advantage of the simulated annealing algorithm, we constructed a 7-state kinetic scheme whose predictions accurately reproduced the currents of the cotransporter as a function of extracellular Na+ and glucose. According to our model, the rate limiting step of cotransport under a saturating glucose concentration is the reorientation of the empty carrier that follows the intracellular release of substrates.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Physics / Zenghu Chang / The first part of this thesis describes our novel design, test, and application of our X-ray streak camera to the pulse duration measurement of soft X-rays. We demonstrated a significant improvement in the resolution of the x-ray streak camera by reducing the electron beam size in the deflection plates. This was accomplished by adding a slit in front of the focusing lens and the deflection plates. The temporal resolution reached 280 fs when the slit width was 5 μm. The camera was operated in an accumulative mode and tested by using a 25 fs laser with 2 kHz repetition rate and 1-2% RMS pulse energy stability. We conclude that deflection aberrations, which limit the resolution of the camera, can be appreciably reduced by eliminating the wide-angle electrons. We also employed the same streak camera to demonstrate that it is capable of measuring the pulse duration of X-rays. We measured the pulse duration of X-rays emitted from Ni-like Ag and Cd grazing-incidence laser to be ~5ps. The measured value agrees with the prediction made by the model and the measurement made by changing the delay as a function of the pulse duration. The streak camera was also tested with various sources of X-ray such as high harmonics generation of soft x-rays from an argon atom using a high power Ti:sapphire laser source of KLS. The result of the measurement manifests its capability for serving as a detector in the study of ultrafast dynamics in the field of physics, chemistry, biology and medical sciences. The second part of this thesis describes our design of a spectrometer to study the effect of the Carrier envelope (CE) phase on polarization gated extreme-ultraviolet (XUV) super-continuum generation. Because the challenge of making single shot experiment possible is to generate a sufficient number of photons, our setup has been built to allow generation of high order harmonics at the maximum phase matched pressure. This is the first time to our knowledge that phase matching in the polarization gating process has been studied so far. We measured the maximum phase matching pressure to be ~ 55 Torr which is the pressure above which quadratic increase in intensity of the high harmonics spectrum ceases to appear. At this pressure the number of photons per laser shot was 104 which is sufficient for measuring the single shot XUV spectrum in the range 34 to 45 eV. The spectral profile was a super-continuum for some shots and discrete high harmonics for other shots. It is believed that the shot to shot variation of the spectra is due to the changes of the carrier envelope phase of the few-cycle laser pulses used for the polarization gating. An improved CE phase stabilization system in KLS further eliminated the statistical noise in our observation by allowing us to integrate data over several laser cycles for each CE phase value. The effect of CE phase on a polarization gated XUV spectrum was tested by changing the CE phase with two different methods. In the first method, the CE phase was changed by changing the thickness of fused silica plates on the beam path, and the result shows the shift in the spectral peak of the XUV when the gate width approached less than one optical cycle. As gate width was made less than half the optical cycle, the spectrum was observed with continuum harmonics separated by π radians. We believe that the presence of continuum and discrete harmonics spectra in the observation is due to single and double attosecond pulses generated in the polarization gating. In the second method the carrier-envelope phase of pulses from a grating-based chirped pulse amplification laser was varied smoothly to cover a 2π range by controlling the grating separation. The phase is measured simultaneously by an f-to-2f setup and by the variation of XUV spectra from polarization gated high harmonic generation. A very good similarity between the effect of single and double slits in Yong’s experiment and that of CE phase on the XUV spectrum in the polarization gating experiment has been found, giving better agreement with the theory. The effect of optical properties such as the Gouy phase shift on the polarization gated spectrum has also been studied in the course of investigating the best experimental optimizations to generate the most CE phase sensitive XUV spectrum with less statistical noise. This is the first time to our knowledge experimental study of the effect of the Gouy phase shift on a polarization gated XUV spectrum has been made.