In this thesis, I address the problem and promise of decentralization, in the context of standard-setting for physical systems. I explore how the process of the decentralization of power works in the context of physical information, in three subsets:the relationship between existing standards and the decentralized control of physical information; how hands-on experimentation helps to shed light on the decentralized control of physical information; and how existing Free/Libre Open Source Software culture addresses the decentralized control of physical information.

In this thesis, I address the problem and promise of decentralization, in the context of standard-setting for physical systems. I explore how the process of the decentralization of power works in the context of physical information, in three subsets:the relationship between existing standards and the decentralized control of physical information; how hands-on experimentation helps to shed light on the decentralized control of physical information; and how existing Free/Libre Open Source Software culture addresses the decentralized control of physical information.

This thesis discusses the design of three systems that were built using Critical Making as an investigative method. The systems are: an RFID antenna that links ISBNs to online metadata; metamash.org, which aggregates ISBN metadata; and doitag.org, which allows users to associate tags with DOI numbers. Each system was designed to interrogate issues related to identification, categorization and the institutional foundations of, and individual practices surrounding, information systems, providing levers to get at deeper ontological issues. Each investigation points in its own way to a profound lack of understanding about the ontology of digital, or hybrid material/digital objects. David Weinberger's ordering scheme for material and digital objects is used because it allows for a discussion of ordering systems in general. However, focusing solely on categorization systems masks more important questions about the ontology of such objects and how building and using such objects fundamentally defines what they are.

This thesis discusses the design of three systems that were built using Critical Making as an investigative method. The systems are: an RFID antenna that links ISBNs to online metadata; metamash.org, which aggregates ISBN metadata; and doitag.org, which allows users to associate tags with DOI numbers. Each system was designed to interrogate issues related to identification, categorization and the institutional foundations of, and individual practices surrounding, information systems, providing levers to get at deeper ontological issues. Each investigation points in its own way to a profound lack of understanding about the ontology of digital, or hybrid material/digital objects. David Weinberger's ordering scheme for material and digital objects is used because it allows for a discussion of ordering systems in general. However, focusing solely on categorization systems masks more important questions about the ontology of such objects and how building and using such objects fundamentally defines what they are.

The objective of the research was to understand how customer knowledge was used in an organization and the role knowledge management systems (KMS) played in this use. Traditionally, organizations have relied on internal knowledge to shape their corporate strategy. Recently however they are tapping new sources of knowledge that are external to the firm. One important source of organizational knowledge is a company’s customers, as they present a source of knowledge that may provide new insights, innovations and ideas that are not necessarily found within the organization. The study examined the perceptions and beliefs of customer knowledge held by an organization’s employees, the types of customer knowledge available to the firm, the use of a KMS, and its impact on an organization’s use of knowledge. We posed the question of how these perceptions and beliefs influenced the types of customer knowledge available and the design and implementation of a KMS. Furthermore, we investigated the impact of customer knowledge types and knowledge management systems on how an organization uses customer knowledge in its regular operational routines. To answer these questions, a case study was conducted in a Canadian health care systems organization. By taking the approach that individuals in an organization are the key to sharing knowledge with customers, this research was able to gain an in-depth understanding of how employees view customer knowledge, including both positive and negative attitudes towards this new source of knowledge. The types of customer knowledge available to the study organization were identified, as were the ways that the newly implemented KMS helped and hindered knowledge sharing. The results of the research demonstrate how the types of customer knowledge available to an organization can be categorized by the perceived quality and the perceived accessibility of the knowledge. These findings contribute to the field of knowledge management by moving towards a theory of how customer knowledge is used by an organization, and how internal and external factors affect this use. Furthermore, this study raises awareness of the importance of a KMS in managing customer knowledge, including key aspects of its design and implementation.

Guidelines focusing on web interface design allow for the dissemination of complex and multidisciplinary research to communities of practice. Motivated by the desire to better understand how research evidence canbe shared with the web design community, this dissertation investigates the role guidelines play in the design process, the attitudes designers hold regarding guidelines, and whether evidence based guidelines can be consistently interpreted by designers. Guidelines are a potential means to address the knowledge gap between research and practice, yet we do not have a clear understanding of the relationship between research evidence, guideline sets and web design practitioners. In order to better understand how design guidelines are used by designers in the practice of web interface design, four sequential studies were designed; the application of a guideline subset to a design project by 16 students, the assessment of ten health information websites by eight designers using a guideline subset, a web based survey of 116 designers, and interviews with 20 designers. The studies reveal that guideline use is dependent on the perceived trustworthiness of the guideline, its source and the alignment between guideline advice and designer experience. The first two studies found that guidelines are inconsistently interpreted. One third of the guidelines used in the second study were interpreted differently by participants, an inconsistency which represents a critical problem in guideline use. Findings showed no difference in the characteristics of guidelines which were consistently interpreted and those for which interpretation was the most inconsistent. Further, research evidence was not a factor in guideline use, less than half the designers are aware of evidence-based guideline sets, and guidelines are predominantly used as memory aids. Ultimately alternatives to guidelines, such as checklists or pattern libraries, may yield the best results in our efforts to share research knowledge with communities of practice.

Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) and the Accessible Rich Internet Applications (WAI-ARIA) constitute core accessibility resources for Web designers and developers. To explore their deployment, I conduct interviews with 10 practitioners who use WCAG and WAI-ARIA in their work. Using techniques derived from grounded theory and situational analysis, I develop the concept of conformance work. Conformance work refers to how designers and developers develop harmonized interpretations of WAI-ARIA and WCAG, and the Websites these specifications are meant to instruct. Conformance work is the upstream work designers and developers engage in to invest categories such as “standards compliance” and “Web accessibility” with meaning.

Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) and the Accessible Rich Internet Applications (WAI-ARIA) constitute core accessibility resources for Web designers and developers. To explore their deployment, I conduct interviews with 10 practitioners who use WCAG and WAI-ARIA in their work. Using techniques derived from grounded theory and situational analysis, I develop the concept of conformance work. Conformance work refers to how designers and developers develop harmonized interpretations of WAI-ARIA and WCAG, and the Websites these specifications are meant to instruct. Conformance work is the upstream work designers and developers engage in to invest categories such as “standards compliance” and “Web accessibility” with meaning.

Guidelines focusing on web interface design allow for the dissemination of complex and multidisciplinary research to communities of practice. Motivated by the desire to better understand how research evidence canbe shared with the web design community, this dissertation investigates the role guidelines play in the design process, the attitudes designers hold regarding guidelines, and whether evidence based guidelines can be consistently interpreted by designers. Guidelines are a potential means to address the knowledge gap between research and practice, yet we do not have a clear understanding of the relationship between research evidence, guideline sets and web design practitioners. In order to better understand how design guidelines are used by designers in the practice of web interface design, four sequential studies were designed; the application of a guideline subset to a design project by 16 students, the assessment of ten health information websites by eight designers using a guideline subset, a web based survey of 116 designers, and interviews with 20 designers. The studies reveal that guideline use is dependent on the perceived trustworthiness of the guideline, its source and the alignment between guideline advice and designer experience. The first two studies found that guidelines are inconsistently interpreted. One third of the guidelines used in the second study were interpreted differently by participants, an inconsistency which represents a critical problem in guideline use. Findings showed no difference in the characteristics of guidelines which were consistently interpreted and those for which interpretation was the most inconsistent. Further, research evidence was not a factor in guideline use, less than half the designers are aware of evidence-based guideline sets, and guidelines are predominantly used as memory aids. Ultimately alternatives to guidelines, such as checklists or pattern libraries, may yield the best results in our efforts to share research knowledge with communities of practice.

The objective of the research was to understand how customer knowledge was used in an organization and the role knowledge management systems (KMS) played in this use. Traditionally, organizations have relied on internal knowledge to shape their corporate strategy. Recently however they are tapping new sources of knowledge that are external to the firm. One important source of organizational knowledge is a company’s customers, as they present a source of knowledge that may provide new insights, innovations and ideas that are not necessarily found within the organization. The study examined the perceptions and beliefs of customer knowledge held by an organization’s employees, the types of customer knowledge available to the firm, the use of a KMS, and its impact on an organization’s use of knowledge. We posed the question of how these perceptions and beliefs influenced the types of customer knowledge available and the design and implementation of a KMS. Furthermore, we investigated the impact of customer knowledge types and knowledge management systems on how an organization uses customer knowledge in its regular operational routines. To answer these questions, a case study was conducted in a Canadian health care systems organization. By taking the approach that individuals in an organization are the key to sharing knowledge with customers, this research was able to gain an in-depth understanding of how employees view customer knowledge, including both positive and negative attitudes towards this new source of knowledge. The types of customer knowledge available to the study organization were identified, as were the ways that the newly implemented KMS helped and hindered knowledge sharing. The results of the research demonstrate how the types of customer knowledge available to an organization can be categorized by the perceived quality and the perceived accessibility of the knowledge. These findings contribute to the field of knowledge management by moving towards a theory of how customer knowledge is used by an organization, and how internal and external factors affect this use. Furthermore, this study raises awareness of the importance of a KMS in managing customer knowledge, including key aspects of its design and implementation.