Emotional memories are powerful memories that have markedly different phenomenological characteristics, compared to neutral memories. Emotional memories are adaptive and serve to aid survival of organisms. Evidence suggests that emotional events tend to be remembered with a greater depth of sensory and perceptual detail. The phenomenon around such memories has therefore been coined, emotion-enhanced memory (EEM). Much of the research into EEM has focused on the long-term consolidating affects that emotions can have upon memory; with the modulation hypothesis being the predominant theory in the literature. However, it has been noted in the literature that emotional stimuli can also enhance short-term memories, immediately after test. It is suggested that the immediate EEM is driven by changes in the cognitive attributes of emotional stimuli, which facilitates encoding processes; this is known as the cognitive-mediating account of immediate EEM. This research aims to investigate three of the key cognitive mediating factors, implicated in the behavioural literature; distinctiveness, relatedness and attention. Using electrophysiological recordings and event-related potentials, this work aims to further the behavioural research and develop functional accounts of how these cognitive factors can influence the immediate EEM. The results suggest that distinctiveness plays a significant role in the immediate EEM and a functional two-step model is proposed to outline the mechanisms through which it exerts it influence. This works also suggests overt attentional resources play a key role, as part of distinctiveness processing. The results did however find, contrary to the behavioural literature, relatedness is unable to fully account for the immediate EEM. These results are interpreted as supporting a complimentary model of EEM, which involves both the cognitive-mediating account for the immediate EEM and the modulation hypothesis for long-term EEM. These findings are discussed in terms of the real-world implications that emotional memory research can have.

This thesis sought to address specific methodological issues relating to tasks of recognition memory in animals and humans. Such tasks are very widely used, so the need to reduce variability and improve the translation of animal work to humans is apparent. Study 1 sought to develop a reliable testing method based on the spontaneous recognition paradigm that would reduce the animal numbers required for such tasks. Rats displayed significant performance in multiple recognition tasks carried out in the continual trials apparatus, which allows for multiple trials within a session. Approximately 50% fewer animals were required for statistically meaningful results, compared to studies using the standard one trial a day paradigm. Study 2 sought to further develop the continual trials apparatus for an episodic-like memory task for rodents. This study focussed on the development of an object preference task to investigate the behavioural parameters that would affect recognition in the test phase of the E-maze task. Study 3 aimed to investigate whether the continual trials apparatus could be effectively applied with immediate-early gene imaging during a recognition memory task. Animals tested with novel stimuli showed greater fos expression than animals tested with familiar objects, though not significantly. Finally, Study 4 focussed on the translation of animal models of memory to humans. The analysis of receiver-operating characteristics was used to derive a quantifiable distinction between recollection- and familiarity-based processes of recognition, in a task based on paradigms typically used with rodents. The key findings of the work in this thesis include evidence of substantial animal reduction using a new behavioural apparatus for assessing recognition memory in rodents, and the successful development of an analogous human task of memory in which processes of recognition can be dissociated and quantified. These two key findings make a significant contribution to the field of recognition memory research as the new rodent behavioural tasks are a clear improvement on standard tasks with the potential to reduce variance and animal numbers, and reducing the reliance on human subjects’ introspective accounts of memory in Study 4 provides a shift away towards better controlled behavioural studies in humans, which more closely reflects the studies carried out with animals, and provides strong validation for particular animal models. Through further validation, the simplicity of the human memory task could make it a useful candidate for assessing different forms of recognition memory with neuropsychological subjects.

Auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs) are the experience of hearing a voice in the absence of any speaker. Cognitive models of AVHs have suggested that they may occur when an internal mental event, such as inner speech, is misattributed to an external source. This has variously been explained by reference to biases in self-monitoring, source monitoring, or reality discrimination processes. Evidence suggests that, mechanistically, this may be related to atypical functioning of a forward model system which usually predicts the outcome of self-generated actions, attenuating activity in sensory cortices to the resulting perceptual input. At a higher level, excessive vividness and low cognitive effort associated with internal mental events may be associated with external misattributions of inner speech. Chapter 1 reviews inner speech models of AVH, as well as recent attempts to reduce the frequency of AVHs using neurostimulation. Chapter 2 then provides a methodological overview of techniques used in this thesis. The first two empirical studies presented in this thesis, in Chapters 3 and 4, explore the cognitive mechanisms underlying AVHs by investigating the associations between self-reported hallucination-proneness and phenomenology of inner speech, and performance on source monitoring and self-monitoring tasks, in a non-clinical, student sample. The results indicated that hallucination-prone participants were more likely to misattribute self-generated auditory verbal imagery, both when instructed to generate imagery and when they retrospectively reported using imagery. Regression analysis also indicated that a tendency to use dialogic inner speech, biased performance on reality discrimination and self-monitoring tasks, and a tendency to perceive meaning in jumbled speech independently predicted hallucination-proneness. The studies presented in Chapters 5 and 6 investigated the neural basis of performance on auditory signal detection and source monitoring tasks using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Results indicated that modulating activity in the superior temporal gyrus/temporoparietal junction (STG/TPJ) affected the number of false perceptions on the signal detection task. However, stimulation to the left STG or medial prefrontal cortex did not affect performance on a source monitoring task. These results indicate that different cortical regions may be involved in the two tasks, and hence that they may reflect different aspects of how self-generated actions are experienced as such. Together, the four experimental chapters 1) provide evidence for inner speech accounts of AVH, 2) indicate the need for a more complex account of self-monitoring and reality discrimination in which both are seen as independent predictors of AVHs, and 3) suggest that the left STG plays a key role in reality discrimination, but less so in source monitoring tasks (at least in the encoding stage). The thesis concludes with a general discussion of these issues, and recommendations for future research.

Although faces are processed bilaterally it is widely accepted that the right hemisphere (RH) dominates for processing attributes such as gender and identity and the left hemisphere (LH) dominates for processing lip-reading. The processing of emotional expressions is somewhat more equivocal, but depending on the emotion being expressed is dominated by either the RH or LH. This hemispheric laterality results in perceptual judgements being biased to the contralateral side when facial decisions are made, and for eye movements to be biased to the contralateral side of the face too. In older adulthood, however, lateralized hemispheric dominance is predicted to reduce as additional recruitment of the non-dominant hemisphere is also required to maintain performance, and this may impact on a reduction in lateralization of perception and eye movements. Consequently, it would be anticipated that in older adulthood a reduction in hemispheric lateralization would impact on the lateralization of perceptual judgements and eye movements during face processing tasks. To test this, a series of experiments were devised to investigate differences in the perceptual and eye movement lateralization of younger and older adults when facial decisions are made. Four studies are reported; studies one and two investigated the RH dominant face processing tasks of gender and identity, study three investigated the LH dominant task of lip-reading and study four investigated emotion processing which, depending on the emotion expressed, is dominated by either the LH or RH. Studies three and four also used the Landmark task to assess whether lateral response biases are face specific. The results of these studies provide empirical evidence quantifying the impact of ageing on lateralized judgements and eye movements using tasks associated with predominantly unilateral processing in younger adulthood. Differences according to age are discussed in relation to cortical changes and the predictions of theories of ageing.

Cognitive-behavioural models have been proposed to explain the development and maintenance of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and checking symptoms. Previous research has examined models relating to cognitive dysfunction, including the memory deficits and executive impairments. Evidence to support these models is inconclusive. Researchers suggest that it may be more fruitful to examine memory and executive function as involving several independent processes rather than treating them as unitary processes. It has also been suggested that memory impairments may be secondary to executive dysfunction. Reported work examining this relationship is limited. Studies investigating checking behaviours have highlighted the role of belief and appraisal models. In particular, memory confidence and perceived responsibility has been examined. The relative contribution of these variables, when examining memory deficits and executive dysfunction, is uncertain. This work programme had the objective of examining the relative contribution of different cognitive-behavioural models to checking symptoms across four different studies. Prospective memory deficits and familiarity biases were found to be related to checking symptom severity. These findings suggest that, when examining memory deficits, independent memory processes should be considered. Inhibitory function was shown to consistently predict checking symptom severity, suggesting that executive dysfunction is related to a specific dimension of cognitive regulation. Inhibitory impairments were not shown to be solely related to the presence of OCD symptoms, with similar inhibition deficits in an OCD and anxiety group. Additionally, inhibition was demonstrated to independently contribute to compulsive but not obsessive symptoms, when anxiety was taken into account. These findings highlighted the role of anxiety and inhibition in relation to compulsive symptoms. Correlation and mediation analyses across this work demonstrated that there is no relationship between memory impairments and inhibition. It was concluded that both memory deficits and inhibition independently contribute to the checking symptom profile. When memory confidence and perceived responsibility were examined in the same model as memory and inhibition, only perceived responsibility was found to be an independent predictor of checking symptom severity. The results from each of the four studies reported here have potential implications for future research examining cognitive-behavioural models of checking. It is suggested that an integrated model of checking may be useful in helping to develop a better understanding of the onset and maintenance of the disorder.

The affective-reactivity hypothesis holds that extraverts experience greater levels of positive affect in response to rewards than do introverts. This issue is complicated by the fact that extraversion is comprised of two major components of agency and affiliation. Agentic extraversion reflects social dominance, exhibitionism and achievement striving, whilst affiliative extraversion reflects being warm, affectionate, and valuing close relationships with others. Both components of extraversion have been found to be associated with particular forms of affective reactivity: agentic extraversion predicts positive activation in response to appetitive rewards, whilst affilaitve extraversion predicts warmth-affection in response to affiliative rewards. The aim of this thesis was to test affective reactivity in agentic and affiliative extraversion. Additional issues such as the role of cognitive appraisals in affective reactivity, and whether individual differences in reward sensitivity are also observable in physiological markers of emotion were also examined. Affective-reactivity was tested in response to social behaviours, mental imagery and film clips. It was predicted that agentic extraversion would predict positive activation in response to appetitive situations and that affiliative extraversion would predict warmth-affection and pleasure in response to affiliative situations. There was no support for the predictions regarding agentic extraversion, and affiliative extraversion was only found to predict pleasure and warmth-affection following affiliative mental imagery. The relationships between affiliative extraversion and affect were also found to be mediated by cognitive appraisals, and there was some evidence that affiliative extraversion is associated with zygomaticus activation in response to an affiliative film clip. In sum, support for the affective reactivity hypothesis in agentic and affiliative extraversion was limited. Issues for future researchers to consider include how different experimental methods differentially induce emotion, and how agentic and affiliative extraversion should be conceptualised and measured.

Video Interaction Guidance (VIG) is an intervention that aims to improve communication and relationships. It is a video-based approach that involves a trained VIG professional filming, editing and reviewing film clips with a client, of their interactions with a significant other person. This thesis explores whether VIG can be used to improve pupils' participation in group work lessons, following a novel application of VIG in natural classroom settings. Study 1 aimed to determine whether there were improvements in video samples of observable classroom behaviour following VIG and to investigate participant experiences of the intervention. Participant evaluation of VIG, via focus groups, interviews and questionnaires, was positive. However, while Percentage of Data Points Exceeding the Mean (PEM) calculations of video data using a multiple baseline across participant small-N experimental design showed some degree of post-intervention changes, these were not statistically significant (p>.05) as indicated by Dugard and Todman's bootstrapped exact probability test (2011). Study 2 investigated whether the improvements reported by participants from Study 1 could be objectively observed by experienced professionals. A sample of 4 educational psychologists blind rated a random sample of pre- and post-intervention videos and identified post-intervention videos as evidencing significantly more effective examples of group work (p=.003). The criteria used in their clinical decision-making were used to inform a new video coding schedule. Re-coded observations from the sample of videos used in Study 1 were then analysed. Target pupils were found to be significantly more attentive and attuned to their peers after VIG (p=.05). While PEM scores of video data again indicated other post-intervention improvements, these were not statistically significant (p>.05). This study is unique in reporting objective, observable pupil behaviour change over the relatively short period of VIG intervention, with high levels of client satisfaction and acceptability. Methodological limitations and recommendations for future research are discussed together with key implications for practicing EPs.

Physical activity plays an integral role in management of Type 2 diabetes. Despite strong evidence, a limited number of physical activity interventions have been implemented within routine diabetes care. The aim of this research is to explore the practical issues related to translation, implementation and evaluation of physical activity interventions delivered in everyday settings. Chapters 1-2 introduce the topic and presents the current literature. Chapter 3 presents a systematic review of physical activity interventions delivered within everyday practice. Findings from 12 articles demonstrate that although 66.7% of interventions (n=8) reported an increase in physical activity levels, few publications reported information on intervention translation and implementation. Chapter 4 uses qualitative interviews and an online survey to explore the insight of health professionals on physical activity promotion within routine care. Findings conclude that physical activity promotion could be improved by: (1) having a key member of staff responsible for physical activity promotion, (2) a referral route for physical activity support, (3) behaviour change training for staff, (4) linking delivery of physical activity with clinical outcomes, and (5) using 'champions' to raise the profile of physical activity within the health service. Chapter 5 presents findings from a process evaluation of a physical activity consultation intervention delivered within routine diabetes care. Results show that an evidence-based protocol can effectively promote physical activity and improve health outcomes in adults with diabetes. Several practical issues were identified including the need for flexibility in the intervention protocol and the role of 'champions' to promote adoption of the intervention. Chapter 6 collates findings from each study to provide recommendations on translation, implementation and evaluation of physical activity interventions within routine diabetes care. This thesis demonstrates that delivery of physical activity interventions within routine diabetes care is challenging and complex. The recommendations should guide and support this process.

The overall aim of this thesis is to facilitate the development of evidence-based coaching through investigating a competency framework for Coaching Psychologists to enhance the coaching relationship towards a positive outcome. Coaching has been extensively applied to organisational and leadership development programmes in the past few decades. However, coaching is not an accredited profession because it is a cross-disciplinary methodology. There are still some gaps in the existing coaching related competency frameworks of main governing associations (e.g. BPS and ICF). Hence, it is essential to enhance evidence-based coaching practice by identifying effective attributes for Coaching Psychologists by means of a role analysis. The research was split into four main stages. Firstly, a Systematic Review on Coaching Psychology was conducted to determine further research focus. Review results ascertained that the coaching relationship is the key indicator in facilitating positive outcomes. Thus there is an urgent need to develop and validate a Coaching Psychology Competency Framework (CPCF) to generate a greater effect on the coaching relationship. Second, Critical incident reviews (N=25) were utilised to elicit the effective attributes a Coaching Psychologist should acquire in order to facilitate a constructive coaching process. A draft competency framework underpinned by 13 competencies and 100 behaviours was outlined. Subsequently, a cross-validation questionnaire study (N=107) with Coaching Alliance Inventory (CAI) was carried out to evaluate the reliability and validity of the draft CPCF. A total of 75 behavioural indicators sorted into three groups (e.g. Soft Skills) were retained for further examination. The final study examined the effectiveness of the CPCF by means of a pilot quasi-experiment (N=26)that compared a group which received relevant training and a control group that did not receive this training. The study results indicated coachee participants who received coaching from the training group had a better relationship with their coaches and stronger belief in achieving their goals. In summary, this is the first coaching competency framework which focuses on investigating to what extent psychological grounded interventions generate a greater impact on coaching alliance through an evidence-based research process. Three distinct groups of competencies disclosed a constructive coaching process is mainly underpinned by a coach’s psychological interpersonal skills (e.g. enhancing a coachee’s selfesteem and motivation)and learning facilitation (e.g. establishing realistic goals and tasks); which could be applied to varied purposes of coaching training design. A longitudinal field study with genuine coach-coachee dyads should be designed in the future research to examine whether CPCF could be a professional guideline for Coaching Psychologists to establish an effective coaching relationship based on real coaching context.

The portfolio is introduced by charting my journey to counselling psychology and outlining the three dossiers to the portfolio. The dossiers are composed of academic, therapeutic and research work. The academic dossier consists of three essays. The essays look at how psychotherapeutic theory relates to practice and how human distress can be understood and helpfully responded to. The therapeutic dossier introduces the three placements I attended over the three and a half years of the course and outlines the nature of therapeutic work I engaged with. It also includes my final clinical paper which reflects on my development as a counselling psychologist and how it shaped how I view and work with people in distress. The portfolio finishes with the research dossier which is divided into a literature review and two empirical qualitative studies. The central theme of the research endeavour is an exploration of materialism within personal, social and cultural contexts. The literature review aims to draw together social and individual levels of analysis in understanding the effect of materialism on wellbeing. The first piece of research uses narrative analysis to explore the construct of materialism and its meanings in the context of participants’ life stories. The second piece of research uses thematic analysis from a critical realist position to explore middle class individuals’ experience of living in a material world.