This thesis reports seven experiments which examine how spatial information is used during reading. In particular, the experiments address two issues which are fundamental to understanding how space information is used during reading. Furthermore, these issues are essential in examining how current models of eye movement control during reading could incorporate the use of space information, which is currently not well specified. Firstly, what is the precise nature of the processing of space information for previously read text? This was examined in Experiments 1-4, which built upon previous findings that readers do continue to process space information for previously read text by revealing that this is largely limited to text immediately to the left of fixation, and is mediated by attention. Importantly, these findings reveal the significant role that attention plays in the processing of space information during reading, which has important implications for how space information should be specified in models of eye movement control during reading. Secondly, precisely how does the use of space information change across the adult life span? This was examined in Experiments 5-7, which revealed that older adults (aged 65+) are more reliant on the availability of spaces between words than young adults (aged 18-30). Furthermore, the results indicated that this is largely limited to foveal processing, and that older adults are able to adapt as well as young adults to subtle variations in the size of these spaces. Importantly, these findings indicate that how space information is used during reading changes across the adult lifespan, which has important implications for how the models of eye movement control during reading should fully incorporate the use of space information. Overall, this thesis provides a more fully comprehensive understanding of how spatial information is used during reading and highlights key areas where theoretical development is needed.

Background: The current evidence shows that unaccompanied refugee minors have poorer adjustment and greater psychiatric morbidity than the general population. Despite the availability of some treatment options, there have been widespread concerns about poor access and utilization of mental health services in this population. Very limited research evidence is available on their perceptions and experiences of treatment for mental illness and mental health services. Research aims: The aims of this research were to explore the unaccompanied refugee minors’ experiences of mental health service, the factors contributing to the experiences and their perceived ways of improving these services. Methods: A clinical sample of 15 unaccompanied refugee minors and their carers were recruited from consecutive referrals to a specialist Children and Adolescent Mental Health (CAMHS) team for looked after children. Young people and their carers were interviewed using a semi structured interview schedule. Interviews were audio taped, transcribed verbatim and analysed by a thematic framework. Results: The main emerging themes related to participants’ understanding of mental health, experiences of services and interventions, and suggestions for future improvement. Young persons’ limited knowledge of mental health services, lack of trust and fear of stigma were perceived as main factors affecting their engagement. They preferred not to talk about their past at this stage, but rather expected clinicians to help them address their present needs. Activity-based interventions were favoured over talking treatments. Strategies to engage the young persons, and connecting with other agencies and communities were recommended by the participants. Conclusions: The findings provide support for the role that preparation, engagement, and communication between agencies and communities may play in the unaccompanied refugee minors’ experience. These findings are discussed in the context of previous evidence. Clinical and service implications as well as recommendations for future research are considered.

Religion and superstition are complex constructs since they are intertwined with a variety of psychological aspects and are correlated to positive and negative-related effects. For instance, both phenomena have been associated with advantages at behavioural (i.e. performance enhancements) and cognitive levels (i.e. executive function deficits). This thesis represents a systematic attempt to study these constructs under a non-reductionist approach and emphasizes the cognitive processes. Despite underlying and behavioural similarities, both phenomena were treated as peripheral (although independent) constructs with the intention of: a) forwarding the idea that both religion and superstition can have a neuroscience edge and can be integrated thus into novel and/or well-established electrophysiological and cognitive paradigms, b) exploring the links between religious and superstitious factors (namely luck belief) in relation to behavioural performances and cognitive functions, and c) underlying the advantages of a multidimensional non-reductionist view for both constructs. Overall, results further indicated that it is necessary to treat religion and superstition as related (but not equal) multifaceted phenomena. Both negative and positive-related effects were found: physiological evidence showing a correlation between unlucky beliefs and deficits in executive functions (EFs), when comparing event-related potentials (electroencephalogram-derived technique) recorded during a Stroop task of a group associated to these beliefs; a performance enhancement effect related to the use of a religious amulet during an anagram task; finally, a high correlation between negative-oriented beliefs and EFs in a screening that was based on a battery scale containing a myriad of religious, superstitious and EF sub-factors.

Agent-Based Models (ABM) have become accepted as an experimental technique in social psychology research. However, ABMs are rarely validated externally. This research attempted to experimentally validate, in particular the Schelling’s Dynamic Models of segregation. This model is an agent-based proximity model implemented with a new parameter, the tolerance level, which is based on perceived similarities of the agents. The introduction of this new parameter has made ABM applicable to social sciences. Five parameters (tolerance threshold, neighbourhood ranges, environment types, group size and proportions) of the model have been chosen to be tested experimentally and evaluated theoretically. Therefore, relevant chapters include an experimental and a theoretical section. In the experimental part group of participants played the linear public good game with altruistic punishment. The level of cooperation was measured through contributions scores. In the theoretical part the outcome of the simulation models was evaluated using the segregation factor. The experimental results and the simulation outcomes have been compared in each chapter separately. Five chapters inspected the five parameters of the Schelling model considering additional prospects. The tolerance threshold was tested using groups with different wealth origin. The neighbourhood ranges were tested using groups with different geographical proximities. The environment type parameter was tested using different gender groups. The group sizes parameter was tested using different community sizes. Finally the group proportions were tested by allocating the participants into groups with different ethnicity proportions. Additionally, the effects of these conditions were examined on altruistic punishment. The findings show that the contributions scores alter between the different scenarios. However, altruistic punishment is not always influenced. This thesis provides a partial validation of five parameters of the Schelling model and contributes to an effective development of all future ABMs. The research suggests unique recommendations for further research in both the experimental and theoretical parts.

Background: Chronic pain is a common aspect of many neurological conditions and often causes psychological distress. A scoping literature search revealed research was lacking in the area of Huntington’s disease (HD) and pain, therefore the empirical work focused on providing data on prevalence of pain and psychological predictors of pain in HD. There was insufficient research on HD and pain to form the basis of a review, however there was a body of literature on Parkinson’s disease (PD). The review focused on the relationship between pain and depression in people with PD. A critical appraisal of the experience of conducting the review and empirical work formed the final part of the thesis. Literature review: Fourteen articles were identified and reviewed in depth. Half of the studies, representing approximately three quarters of the participants in total, found a significant relationship between pain and depression in PD, with increased pain associated with increased depression. There was reasonable evidence to support an association between the severity of depression and the severity of pain in people with PD, although further research was recommended. Empirical report: A data-mining study was undertaken using data from 1474 participants of the European Huntington’s Disease Network (EHDN) REGISTRY study to examine the prevalence of pain in HD and to identify, using ordinal regression analysis, which psychological factors predicted severity of pain in people with HD. The prevalence of pain in HD was found to be 41%. Pain severity in HD was predicted by anxiety, depression and irritability. Caregivers and health professionals should consider the possibility that people with HD might be experiencing pain, particularly if there are signs of anxiety, depression or irritability. Recommendations were made for further research and limitations were discussed. Critical appraisal: The research process, methodology and main learning points were considered.

Part One: Literature Review: Introduction: The systematic literature review explored the conceptual models used by South Asian women in making sense of their experiences of depression. Method: A systematic search of five databases generated a total of ten qualitative papers to be included in this review. Results: A total of four themes emerged in explaining beliefs about depression. These were; a) Inter-Generational Identity and Conflict, b) Marital Abuse and Adjustment, c) Somatisation and Medical Treatment and d) Distress as Part of Gods Plan. Many of the themes were shared by South Asian women living in South Asia and those living in the West. Discussion: There is evidence to suggest that South Asian women are not averse to receiving support from mental health services but Western models of mental health are not inclusive of cultural factors resulting in isolation of these women from receiving appropriate and timely support for depression. Part Two: Research Report: Introduction: The aim of the current study was to explore the types of narratives held by South Asian individuals who hear voices. Method: A qualitative approach was adopted for this study. Seven South Asian participants who actively heard voices were interviewed. These were audio recorded, transcribed and analysed using Narrative Analysis with a particular focus on Frank’s narrative typologies. Results: Results demonstrated that individuals held a range of narratives in understanding their experiences of hearing voices. These included elements of Restitution, Chaos and Quest. Cultural stories enabled effective meaning making and created more opportunities for collaborative interventions inclusive of religious and spiritual strategies. The absence of cultural dimensions in stories increased conflict between mental health services and South Asian individuals. Discussion: Supporting individuals to explore cultural stories and facilitating these to be incorporated into existing biomedical frameworks is more likely to result in individuals moving towards restitution in their experiences of hearing voices. Part Three: Critical Appraisal: This chapter described the reflexive account of the researcher throughout the research project.

Literature Review: The aim of the review was to explore the research literature in relation to the experiences of interpreters of migrants in a mental health context. A systematic review of the literature was carried out in order to provide a thematic synthesis of the findings of previous research. Of the 1805 articles found, eleven met the inclusion criteria for the review. The process followed Thomas and Harden (2008) recommendation of data collection, critical appraisal and thematic synthesis. In total, five themes were uncovered. These were ‘mental health interpreting is an enhanced role’; ‘bearing witness’; ‘emotional impact’; ‘relationship matters’ and ‘coping (trial and error)’. The literature purported to show the added complexities of interpreting when compared to non mental health settings. Interpreters can be emotionally affected whilst working in mental health settings, this can relate to bearing witness to traumatic stories which can cause distress and affect their wellbeing. Research Report: The research aimed to understand how Polish interpreters experience their roles in adult mental health settings and to understand how they view the triadic relationship between themselves, client and mental health professional when interpreting. Six participants were recruited from interpreting services and each took part in semi-structured interviews. Interviews were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. The participants’ accounts clustered around one superordinate theme of ‘being paid to be a machine for a human role’. This was made up of three themes: ‘Just a linguist?’, ‘Unspoken alliances’ and ‘Communicating emotional reactions’. The findings of the current research emphasise the importance for clinicians, mental health and interpreting services to take into account the emotional impact, and disempowerment caused by structural systemic factors which limit the voice of the interpreter. Critical Appraisal: Finally, the critical appraisal offers the researchers’ reflections on the research process, methodological limitations and proposals for future research.

Purpose: The study investigates the effectiveness of JETS, a Cognitive Behavioural Programme, designed for young people (16-18 years) in custody. The research explores group and individual level change against short and long term outcomes, including reconviction and re-imprisonment. Associations between outcomes are investigated, as is the role of individual response to treatment. Method: JETS participants were compared with a custody comparison group on short term measures that are: Malevolent Aggression, Social Anxiety, Social Self Esteem, Impulsivity, Venturesomeness, Empathy, and Locus of Control. Individual change on each measure was explored using a model of Clinically Significant Change (Jacobson and Truax, 2001). Reconviction and re-imprisonment rates at both 12 and 24 months were investigated, including analysis of days post release. Interactions between response to treatment and reconviction were explored. Results: JETS participants improved significantly better than the comparison group on Malevolent Aggression and Locus of Control. JETS participants showed significantly higher levels of Reliable Change and Cut off on Locus of Control as well as being significantly more likely to achieve Reliable Change on 1 or more of the short term measures. JETS participants were significantly less likely to be reconvicted or receive a sentence of imprisonment at 12 and 24 months post release. They also achieve significantly longer periods of release prior to reconviction or re-imprisonment over both 12 and 24 months, whilst controlling for risk. No associations between change on short term measures and reconviction or re-imprisonment were identified. Associations between Time 2 scores on Impulsivity Locus of Control and Social Anxiety and measures of reoffending were observed over both 12 and 24 months periods. Conclusions: This research supports JETS as an effective Offending Behaviour intervention for young people in custody. It demonstrates the importance of multiple level evaluations for both treatment and research purposes. Implications for treatment are discussed.

There is a concern with an increasing ageing driving population because older drivers have a higher crash rate/mile than other age groups. An attempt to further understand this was from the perspective of visual attention driven by cues, which carry probable information of a target's location. Cues are important in driving because hazards appear in likely, rather than random, locations and drivers have an internal representation of the spatial layout of these hazards location. The ideal observer predict the optimal performance and was employed to assess the younger and older drivers ability to 'weight' these location based on different (weighted model) or equal (equal model) likelihoods of hazards appearing in certain locations. Both age-groups also participated in a series of cueing tasks with a cue indicating the likely location (70% cue validity) of the target. The 'weight' from the ideal observer was used to assess the younger and older adults ability to use the cue probability information. Both age-groups took part in peripheral (drives automatic attention) and central (drives voluntary attention) cueing tasks with varying difficulty, i.e., set-size (2 vs. 6) and luminance (contrast threshold vs. octave-below contrast threshold). The main findings were: (1) both age groups optimally used the peripheral and central cue information when there was a smaller set-size, (2) when set-size increased, the older adults sub-optimally used the peripheral cue whilst both age-groups sub-optimally used the central cue. In the driving study, the younger drivers optimally weighted the hazard's locations whilst the older driver weighted the locations equally. The suggests that the older drivers had a shortcoming in locating hazards that could potentially cause a car accident, something that requires further investigation.

Part One: Literature Review: Purpose: Treatment in an ICU is a psychologically traumatic event yet it is unclear what factors independently or cumulatively lead to PTSD in some patients. Method: Electronic databases were searched for articles published between 1960 and 2013. 21 articles were reviewed. Results: The institution that is ICU and memories of the experience contributes to the development of PTSD; however, ecological validity was compromised in many studies. Conclusion: Memory of ICU in PTSD development warrants further exploration. Part Two: Research Report: Introduction: ICU care can result in PTSD, with memories disrupted by sedative and/or analgesic drugs. We examine if a trigger for PTSD flashbacks is an emotionally salient sensory stimulus that occurred whilst sedated. Method: 24 general ICU patients were screened at 1-2 weeks and 4-5 weeks post ICU with commonly used screening tools (PTSS-14, HADS, ICUMT). Skin conductance responses to ICU and other sounds measured implicit memory. Patients’ relatives (n=15) and a non-clinical sample (n=35) also participated. Results: A mixed ANOVA failed to find a significant difference within groups, but did find between group differences F(2,69) = 6.82, p < .05. Positive correlations approaching significance were found for sedation and analgesia with delusional and factual memories. A trend was found for ICU sounds and PTSS. Nine patients reached caseness on the HADS subscales and/or PTSS-14. Conclusion: Replication in a larger sample, ICU-specific screening tools, and intra-ICU and follow up psychological support is recommended. Part Three: Critical Appraisal: Appraisal of the research process was undertaken. Reflections on conducting an independent research project are presented, and learning points highlighted. Part Four: Service Evaluation: A community tenancy of an adult with extremely challenging behaviour was evaluated using a single case study design. The intervention was the package of care. Over time, the frequency and duration of challenging behaviour decreased, tactile and play behaviours increased, and antipsychotic medication significantly reduced. Suggestions for service improvement were made.