The need for cost-effective interventions for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and related conditions is growing rapidly. Recent research suggests that only a limited number of individuals who are eligible for intervention are actually receiving such services. This thesis first discusses the current evidence-base for interventions aimed at young children with ASD. It then outlines a frequent oversight in the literature regarding motor development and resonance difficulties in this population, which forms the basis for developing motor-based interventions for these individuals. Two large-scale experimental school-based studies are then presented which examine the effects of an ABA-based high-intensity physical exercise as an effective intervention for children with ASD and other Special Educational Needs (SEN). In one study, this intervention is compared with a low-intensity exercise program. Results indicate that high-intensity physical exercise results in significant short-term (0-to-90 minute), but not long-term (24 hours+), improvements in cognitive/behavioral flexibility (executive functions) in students with ASD and students with SEN. Furthermore, both high-intensity and low-intensity exercise resulted in significant reductions in stress, in both the short-term and long-term in students with ASD and students with SEN. These findings provide direct evidence for the effectiveness of physical exercise as a school-based intervention.

In this thesis, I explore the ongoing development of symbol use in three domains: pretend play, speech and gestures. In chapter 1, the specific behavioural manifestations of symbol use in these domains are identified and previous literature that has explored the cognitive underpinnings of these abilities is discussed, with a particular focus on children's social cognition. In chapter 2, I review previous research that has sought pairwise relations between these abilities and the theoretical perspectives that have been utilised to explain these relations. In chapter 3, I introduce the four pertinent research questions that emerged from the previous review of the current literature, and provide an overview as to the methods adopted to address these issues. Chapters 4 to 6 constitute three papers designed to explore and evaluate children's symbol production in a sample of preschool children in pretend play speech and gestures. For the first paper, 38-40 month old children were given a battery of standardised measures to assess their symbolic capacities while controlling for non-verbal abilities. These data were analysed for concurrent relations between symbolic capacities. The second paper extends these concurrent relations longitudinally, by giving the children the same battery of measures six and twelve months after initial testing. Correlational and multiple regression analyses were used to assess the potential predictive relations between these measures, and whether there is a changing relation between these symbolic domains over developmental time. The third paper investigates children's iconic gesture production in further detail, by evaluating whether children aged 44-46 months incorporate the iconic gestures they observe an adult perform into their own descriptions of a novel object.Taken together, the results indicate a changing relation between the three symbolic measures of interest during the preschool years. The present findings suggest that both pretend play and gesture production are mediated by speech, but in different ways. It was also found that children appear to incorporate the gestures they observe into their own descriptions of objects but this uptake is dependent on the properties of the gesture itself. In the final chapter, these findings are discussed in relation to previous theoretical notions that place pretend play, speech and gestures as manifestations of an underlying symbolic system. I also discuss the enduring relation between these three abilities and how the pattern of predictive relations found in the present thesis can be explained. Furthermore, I discuss the ontogenesis of symbolic gesture production in children, specifically how children may use the gestures of others as a guide to their own gesture production. Finally I outline some limitations of the present research, and indicate potential avenues for future study.

Phonological awareness is an important component of early literacy and many children struggle to master its key elements, such as the ability to hear syllables and rhymes within the speech stream. The hypothesis explored within this study is that since music and language have parallel auditory perceptual mechanisms then training in rhythmic activities, such as music, could lead to increased understanding of the rhythmic nature required to decode early language and literacy skills. Previous research investigating the relationship between the constructs of music perception and phonological awareness has been promising, but generally inconclusive. Within the study I examine whether there is a link between the temporal processing required to process rhythmic entrainment in both phonological awareness skills and music. The data are interpreted with respect to a theoretical framework linking music and language based on temporal sampling. The ‘temporal sampling theory’ (Goswami, 2011) suggests that the decoding of both language and music is linked to the perception of accent and beat, and that the ability to hear the onset of these accents is critical within a stream of auditory events. To this end rhythmic entrainment tasks were presented in a range of musical activities including drumming along to music and singing nursery songs and rhymes. The musical and rhythmic activities were given in several different forms, to see which would be most effective in showing the children’s ability to synchronise to a beat. These were all presented at four pulse rates (400 ms, 500 ms, 666 ms, 1000 ms). Data were collected over a period of 2 years commencing in November 2009. In Study1 93 4 and 5-year-old children were tested and in Study 2 data were collected from a further 99. In addition to psychometric tests for IQ, Word Recall, teachers from the schools provided information from the children’s Foundation Stage profiles. Phonological awareness skills (syllable and rhyme) were also measured, as was reading development. Overall, children showed greater temporal accuracy (rhythmic entrainment) in keeping time with a musical piece than in keeping time with a metronome. Entrainment accuracy was greatest at the 500 ms rate, the only rate for which entrainment was as accurate with music and metronome. Individual differences in rhythmic entrainment whilst drumming were not linked to I.Q. Children were more temporally accurate when singing than in the rhythmic entrainment tasks and temporal accuracy at pulse rates of 500 ms (2 Hz) and 666 ms (1.5 Hz) showed some significant links to rhyme awareness and to reading. Temporal accuracy in singing a rhyming word on time was also greatest at 500 ms, although simply singing along to music did not show a preferred rate. Unexpectedly, temporal accuracy in singing was linked to I.Q., and was not linked independently to syllable and rhyme awareness. However, temporal accuracy in singing at the 500 ms rate was linked to reading. In Sample 2 of the PhD I report on the results of a seven-week three group matched intervention study of 99 children. The intervention was designed to investigate whether a short intervention of either music or ‘rhythmic speech’ based around the preferred rate of 500ms would lead to improved phonological awareness skills. Group 1 was given a programme of music games and songs, and group 2 was given a matched programme of games and ‘rhythmic speech’, without musical accompaniment or singing, to promote syllable and rhyme awareness. A third group, who received no additional training acted as a control. The results show that an intervention based on rhythmic structure in either a rhythmic speech form or in musical form can be successful in improving children’s phonological awareness skills. The rhythmic speech programme proved to be a more successful vehicle than the music intervention in improving the phonological skills of this group of 90 children. Both interventions were successful in improving both rhyme and syllable awareness, but the greatest improvements came in the syllable tests. There was further evidence that an intervention in either rhythmic speech or music would impact on the children’s future reading skills. Both interventions produced significantly higher correlations with a Word Reading test than the control group. There was no evidence to suggest that a musical intervention based on tapping along to a beat was of more benefit than one based on rhythmic speech. Overall the evidence gathered from the data in this study does suggest that there are direct links between rhythmic awareness, as measured by tapping to an isochronous beat, and the children’s capacity to decode phonological information. The favoured rate at which the brain processes information in both domains, thus linking them together, is at a pulse rate with an Inter Onset Interval set to 500ms. This study’s results could be used to support the development of rhythmic based interventions, in both a rhythmic speech and musical form in support of early literacy skills in 4 and 5 –year –old children.

This thesis examines the extent to which ‘Talk or Dialogue’ contributes to children’s cognitive and psychological development when it is experienced through technological devices. The work analyzes some of the sociocultural theories of children’s speech, cognitive learning, psychological functions, sociocultural learning context, dialogic teaching and learning approaches in the classroom, social interaction and the use of social tools. The theory of speech is built on the Vygotskian notion of language as the prime cultural and psychological tool for children’s learning development in a sociocultural environment. Lev S. Vygotsky emphasised that the development of cognitive processes in children includes thinking, reasoning and understanding of a conceptualised social interaction. These processes are core to children’s intellectual learning. Vygotsky and the neo-Vygotskians emphasised the use of Speech, Talk or Dialogue and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) concept in children’s learning development. In the UK, it was evident that the Talk teaching and learning approach (Mercer & Littleton, 2007) contributed effectively to children’s learning achievements. This approach reinforces Talk or Dialogue collaboratively in the classroom with the ZPD concept. The significance of the Talk teaching approach has encouraged this study to examine further children’s speech and the use of technological devices. Hence, a theoretical discourse methodology on children’s Talk or Dialogue was examined for the research outcomes. The aim is to devise a new teaching and learning approach that contributes to the Malaysian children’s intellectual development inside and outside the classroom through the use of Talk or Dialogue. As a result, a Dialogic framework is articulated based on four existing educational theories of children’s speech and learning. This framework is vital to contribute directly to the Malaysia Education Department Blueprint 2013-2025 in promoting children’s intellectual development. For that reason, two approaches are proposed which emphasise children’s psychological functions of perception, attention, sensory motor-operations and memory through the use of Talk and technological devices. These approaches accentuate the ZPD concept between the teachers and children for learning and activity games. This is the study’s contribution to new knowledge.

The work presented in the present thesis investigated the neural, behavioural and genetic markers that may be associated with the manifestation of behavioural problems during the early years of life. Across four different empirical studies, and by incorporating, behavioural, neurophysiological and genetic investigations, it was demonstrated that: (1) there are neurophysiological signatures that may be associated with the manifestation of behavioural problems early in life; (2) common genetic variations that determine serotonin variability are strongly associated with affectivity-related patterns of frontal brain activation; and that (3) normal genetic variations that modulate serotonin availability and neuroplasticity are each associated with affectivity-related patterns of visual scanning behaviours in response to faces and aversive scenes. Taken together, the results illustrate the existence of robust neural, genetic and behavioural markers that may be associated with the manifestation of behavioural problems in early childhood and prompt further investigation of the area by generating novel hypotheses. Together, the empirical findings of the thesis provide a first stage contribution to the complex mechanisms that may yield risk and resilience for behavioural problems during the early years of life by generating a more comprehensive insight on the field of affectivity.

Cet article a pour but de présenter la violence scolaire féminine en tant que phénomène social d’actualité dans les établissements d'enseignement. L'analyse se fait grâce à l’interprétation du rôle des relations, des stéréotypes et des rôles de genre, qui se trouvent à la base des comportement agressif et de la violence chez les élèves adolescentes, qui ne trouvent une autre façon que de résoudre les conflits avec les pairs de manière réactive, parce qu'elles ne connaissent pas d'autre moyen de le faire ou bien parce que de cette façon, elles gagnent la reconnaissance de leurs pairs avec qui elles partagent l'espace scolaire. Les raisons d'un tel comportement doivent être analysées dans les espaces de relation tels que la famille, l’école et le quartier ; structures sociales qui jouent un rôle dans la dynamique culturelle. Ce phénomène place les acteurs éducatifs dans la perspective d'une recherche de mesures d'intervention et de prévention contre les manifestations de cette difficulté dans les écoles. Il est important, également, d'établir le rôle des enseignants et leur influence sur le climat scolaire. Cette influence négative empêche le progrès dans l'utilisation de stratégies pour la résolution pacifique des conflits, évitant ainsi les comportements violents des adolescents, qui est considérée dans cette recherche comme facilitateur de ce qu'on appelle la violence scolaire féminine. L'analyse du phénomène nécessite une approche épistémologique et phénoménologique, et puis, la mise en tension des comportements observés avec les théories existantes sur le genre, la violence domestique, l'école et la culture scolaire. Ce processus a permit l’établissement des catégories d'analyse appropriées à la recherche, grâce auxquelles s’établit la discussion et les étapes à suivre dans la recherche de mesures d'intervention et de prévention. La conception méthodologique utilisée prend en compte la recherche qualitative de type participative, ancrée dans les « Núcleos de Educación Social y la Prevención de las Violencias Difusas en Contextos Educativos, (NES) ». Nous avons interrogé soixante et onze adolescentes âgées de 11 à 19 ans, de la sixième à la Terminale de cinq écoles publiques dans les quartiers de Santa Fe, Usme, Fontibón, Suba et Usaquen (Bogota – Colombie). Grâce à une stratégie de groupes de discussion (focus groups), les participantes ont exprimé les manifestations de la violence féminine dans différents contextes (sujet/famille, école, quartier) et étapes (rencontres/exploration, promenades, déplacements/transformations), tout en proposant des mesures de prévention et d'intervention pour le traitement du phénomène. L’analyse des résultats et la discussion rendent compte de la dynamique du phénomène, sa caractérisation et son impact sur l'environnement scolaire, afin de générer une réflexion en profondeur au sein des communautés scolaires, universitaires et scientifiques. Parmi les résultats obtenus sont présentés a) la possibilité que les participantes soient des vecteurs de coexistence au sein de leurs établissements scolaires en collaborant avec pour un renforcement du climat de l'établissement positif. b) Produire un historique sur la violence scolaire féminine afin d'identifier les différents étapes du phénomène, les facteurs générateurs de cette violence et les conséquences, de sorte que dans les écoles, la violence scolaire féminine soit reconnue comme un fait de société qui touche la vie quotidienne à l’école, de même que dans la vie des participantes et de leurs familles. / No abstract

Children's well-being is an extremely relevant topic at the moment both culturally and politically. Counselling psychologists complete training that includes a diversity of clinical and research approaches though these focus mainly on adults and neglect children. This study aimed to explore the construction of counselling psychologists' experiences of, and perceived contribution to, working with children. Charmaz's (2006) social constructivist version of the original grounded theory method was employed. Purposive sampling was used to recruit participants from the British Psychological Society's website. Participants also self-selected for the study. Eleven individuals who were chartered counselling psychologists and had experience of working with children therapeutically were interviewed. Intensive interviewing was employed and the interviews were audio-taped with a typed transcript of each produced. Data analysis revealed a central concept which the researcher termed 'Being a Professional Chameleon', which gained expression through the subcategories of 'Adapting to Working with Children', 'Professional Selves' and 'Training and Competency of Working with Children'. The findings are discussed in relation to related literature, counselling psychology training and career paths. Implications for the counselling psychology profession are discussed, including suggestions for future research and clinical practice.

Researchers have long argued that ritual plays a crucial role in marking social identities and binding individuals together in a system of shared actions and beliefs. The psychological processes underlying how and why ritual promotes group bonding and influences in- and out-group biases have not yet been fully elucidated. The research presented in this thesis was designed to examine the social and cognitive developmental underpinnings of conventional/ ritualistic behavior. Because learning cultural conventions is essential for participation in group behavior and for signaling group membership and commitment, I propose that conventional/ ritualistic learning is motivated by a drive to affiliate. Experiment 1 investigated the affiliative nature of ritualistic learning by examining the effects of third-party ostracism on imitation of an instrumental versus ritual action sequence and prosocial behavior. Individuals who do not participate in shared group conventions often face the threat of ostracism from the group. Given that attempting re-inclusion is an established response to ostracism, I predicted that the threat of ostracism increases affiliative motivations and thus will increase imitative fidelity, especially in the context of conventional learning. Experiment 2 examined the effects of first-person ostracism in the context of in- and out-groups on children’s imitation of a ritualistic action sequence and pro-social behavior. I predicted that the experience of ostracism by an in-group versus an out-group has important implications for the construal of social exclusion and affiliative behavior. I hypothesized that children would be motivated to re-affiliate by imitating the model and acting pro-socially towards the group, especially when ostracized by in-group members. Based on the findings of this research and insight from anthropology, and social and developmental psychology, I will present a picture of how children acquire the conventions of their group and how these conventions influence social group cognition.

Maternal depression is a common mental health disorder that can have significant adverse effects on child functioning, including increased rates of child behaviour problems. Adopting a resilience approach highlights that despite the increased risk there is considerable variation in child behaviour development, although mechanisms through which this occurs are not well understood. This thesis investigates positive parenting, harsh parenting, and child inhibitory control as developmentally salient processes that may explain why some children of mothers with depression develop more positive behaviours than others. Analyses were conducted using data from the Early Steps Multisite Study, a longitudinal randomised controlled trial that includes 731 ethnically diverse families from three sites across the United States. Baseline measures were completed at child age 2, with annual follow-up assessments until age 8. These analyses used mother self-reported depressive symptoms, observed measures of parenting, alternate caregiver-reported child inhibitory control, and mother- and teacher-reported child externalising behaviours. Categorical and continuous variables of maternal depression and child behaviour were tested to explore the implications of different analytic approaches, particularly with reference to the concept of resilience. Logistic regression results indicate that child inhibitory control is a robust predictor of developmentally normative behaviours for children of mothers with depression and children in general. Linear regression results support a risk-specific effect of harsh parenting, such that it interacts with maternal depression to predict increased externalising behaviours specifically for children of mothers with depression. Positive parenting appears to predict the behaviour of children in general but not the behaviour of children of mothers with depression. Path analyses indicate that between the ages of 2 and 4, harsh parenting partially mediates the association between maternal depression and child externalising behaviours. Moderated mediation results suggest that children with lower levels of inhibitory control elicit increased harsh parenting behaviours from mothers both with and without depression. Cross-lagged path analyses provide support for reciprocal influence between maternal depression, harsh parenting, and child externalising behaviour, and suggest an impact of maternal depression severity on the establishment of negative patterns of mother-child interactions from age 2. The findings of this thesis support the importance of reducing harsh parenting behaviours particularly for mothers with depression and of improving child self-regulation from an early age. The concept of resilience as a dimensional and potentially reciprocal process is discussed in the context of maternal depression and child behaviour development. Results emphasise that both mother and child are actively involved in influencing processes of resilience. From early childhood, there is a need to support more adaptive patterns of behaviour between mothers with depression and their children in order to increase the likelihood of positive child outcomes over time.

This study applied conversation analysis for the first time to episodes in which children express pain and bodily sensations in the everyday setting of family mealtimes. It focuses on the components of children s expressions, the character of parents responses, and how the sequence is resolved. Three families who had a child with a long term health condition were recruited through voluntary support groups and agreed to film 15-17 mealtimes. In total 47 mealtimes were recorded totalling 23 hours of data. Each family had two children aged 15 months to nine years and included a heterosexual married couple. This data was supplemented by archives in the Discourse and Rhetoric Group: a further nine hours of mealtime recordings by two families each with two children aged three to seven years. The analysis describes four key components of children s expressions of bodily sensation and pain: lexical formulations; prosodic features; pain cries and embodied actions, revealing the way in which they can be built together to display different aspects of the experience. The results highlight the nature of these expressions as initiating actions designed in and for interaction. An examination of the sequence that follows demonstrates the negotiated character of pain. Descriptions of the nature of the child s pain and its authenticity are produced, amended, resisted or accepted in the turns that follow. During these sequences participant orientations reveal the pervasive relevance of eating related tasks that characterises mealtime interaction. The discussion concludes by describing the unique insights into the negotiated rather than private nature of a child s pain demonstrated by this study, and the way in which pain can be understood as produced and dealt with as part of the colourful tapestry of everyday family life in which everyday tasks are achieved, knowledge and authority is claimed and participants are positioned in terms of their relationship to one another.