This research examines the extent to which, individual and neighbourhood characteristics contribute to the risk of two different types of adolescent aggressive behaviour: aggression and delinquency. In addition, it explores potential mechanisms explaining the influence of neighbourhood conditions on adolescent aggressive behaviour. Data regarding adolescent behaviour is taken from self-reported surveys, applied to 1,686 Colombian adolescents, residing in 103 neighbourhoods. Data regarding neighbourhoods is taken from official government datasets, as well as two community surveys that are independent of the individual aggression survey. A range of statistical approaches is used to develop reliable valid measures of both adolescent aggressive behaviour and neighbourhood characteristics: multilevel Rasch models, multilevel factor analysis, ecometrics, spatial multiple membership models, Geographic Information Systems and hierarchical Bayes procedures. For the analysis, the research develops an explicit conceptual framework and uses multi level modelling and multilevel structural equation modelling to obtain unbiased estimates of overall effects, cross-level interactions, direct and indirect effects. Results indicate that individual and neighbourhood-level factors are not only directly and indirectly associated with adolescent aggressive behaviour, but also interact with one another to shape adolescent behaviour. By identifying the processes through which neighbourhoods constrain, enhance or modify adolescent behaviours, these results may be used to inform community based programs, aiming to reduce adolescent aggressive behaviour.

Anxiety and depression are among the most prevalent psychological disorders affecting a large number of people across different cultures. At present, these conditions have not been examined among the general population of Bulgaria. This thesis is a large-scale project involving Bulgarian adolescents aged 13-17 and Bulgarian adults aged 35-58. The main aims are: 1/ to investigate the prevalence and correlates of anxiety and depression in Bulgarian adolescents and adults because this population has been underresearched on these topics 2/ to assess mental health literacy about depression in these two groups. Research indicates that mental health literacy rates vary in adolescents and adults across countries and cultures and are influences by a number of factors such as: healthcare system, social attitudes and expectations, education and social support. 3/ to study the personal experience of anxiety through qualitative methods. The purpose of this analysis is to get the individual point of view. A significant overlap in symptoms exist between depression and anxiety but anxiety has many different forms and aspects (panic attacks, social phobia, generalised anxiety disorder, etc.) that are worthy of qualitative investigation. The two age groups were chosen because: A) their life experiences were very different from a cultural point of view: the adolescents grew in a global, modern and democratic Bulgaria and the adults used to live under the isolation and restrictions of the Communist rule. B) adolescence and adulthood are two distinctive life stages characterised by: social/ emotional changes, changes in health attitudes/behaviour and transition between concrete/ abstract thinking. Three studies were carried out in Bulgaria: Study 1 and Study 2 were quantitative, cross-sectional and Study 3 was qualitative. For Study 1 and Study 2 adolescents (n=700) were randomly recruited from public schools and adults (n=250) were recruited from employment companies. Study 3 applied interpretative phenomenological analysis to unstructured interviews conducted with adolescents (n=10) and adults (n=10) recruited from a sub-sample of Study 1. Results from Study 1 suggested that adolescents and adults had marked differences in specific sub-types of anxiety with adults scoring higher on social phobia, physical injury anxiety and panic agoraphobia. Anxiety and depression correlated strongly in adults. Significant gender differences were observed with females having higher prevalence rates of anxiety and depression in both age groups. Adults also scored higher on interdependency, indicating a collectivist mind set associated with Communism. Results from Study 2 indicated that both age groups had low levels of mental health literacy. However, adults appeared to be more affected by stigma associated with psychological illnesses. Qualitative results from Study 3 highlighted personal experiences and identified additional risk factors associated with onset and persistence of anxiety. Some of these factors were prevalent across both age groups and others were age specific. Further research work needs to focus on identifying helpful strategies in prevention, diagnosis and treatment of these conditions in adolescents and adults. Improving health education across different age groups and reducing stigma towards psychological illness are of particular importance.

Background: The main aim of the present research was to investigate the individual differences in personality, parental bonding, and stress reactivity in order to explain the underlying mechanisms that may sustain chronic stress. In light of the central role of both personal and social factors in shaping one’s experiences as identified by the previous literature, the present study sought to investigate how these aspects interrelate within the framework of chronic stress. It was hypothesised that chronic stress may be the result of maladaptive patterns of interaction between personal and social dispositions in stress processing. Method: The participants included a student and a community sample. Levels of chronic stress, stress reactivity, personality traits, and parental bonding experiences were assessed through self-reported questionnaires. Hypotheses: There were three models of chronic stress conceptualised and tested – general, social, and achievement. The defining features of the general model included parental bonding (affection and control) and personality dispositions. Affection in parental bonding, agreeableness, extraversion, and emotional stability comprised the social model of chronic stress. On the other hand, controlling bonding, extraversion, emotional stability, and conscientiousness were the defining elements of the achievement model of chronic stress. Interaction effects and structural pathways were examined for each of the models through regression analyses and structural equation modelling. Results: The findings included significant interaction effects among the variables of parental bonding and personality as well as idiosyncratic pathway structures for each model. The results were discussed with regard to clinical implications. Discussion: It was concluded that an effective direction for therapeutic work with regard to chronic stress would target stress reactivity by addressing the mismatch between personal and social dispositions. These individual dispositions suggested several focal points for more precise and effective therapeutic interventions.

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Background: Previous studies suggest there is a relationship between shame and anger but findings are somewhat inconsistent. Research on self compassion is still in its infancy but it has been suggested to be a protective factor for a number of psychopathologies. Objective: The primary objective of this study was to assess the relationship between shame and anger in an adolescent sample and whether self compassion was a moderator in this relationship. The study also aimed to further distinguish between self compassion and self esteem by considering the former's relationship to anger when controlling for the benefits of self esteem. Method: The study adopted a quantitative, cross-sectional survey design. The sample consisted of 145 young people aged between 14 and 17 years old. Participants completed measures of shame, self compassion, anger, depression and self esteem. Analysis was conducted using multiple regression. Results: The analysis revealed that shame was a significant predictor of trait anger and anger expression when controlling for self esteem and depression. Self compassion was not found to be a moderator of the relationship between shame and trait anger. Finally self compassion predicted unique variance in trait anger when controlling for self esteem. Discussion: Findings demonstrate an association between shame and anger that could be explained by theories that suggest the painful experience of shame leads to anger (Lewis, 1971). Self compassion was found to be highly correlated with shame which may explain the non significant moderator finding. Self compassion appears to better predict lower levels of anger possibly due to its non evaluative nature. This study is limited by its methodology as casual assumptions cannot be inferred.

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The subject of this research is the self-esteem of young carers in relation to non-young carers and according to the nature of their care recipients’ disability. It is made up of three related sections including the major literature review, the journal article and the reflective summary. The literature review seeks to outline current knowledge and understanding in the area with an emphasis on identifying areas for further research. It is intended to illustrate how the current research study is informed by and related to the areas identified for further research. The journal article provides an account of the research undertaken in a bid to further knowledge in the field. Specifically, it details the methodology employed, the research findings and an interpretation of the findings in relation to current knowledge and understanding. The reflective summary is intended to outline the contributions made to knowledge and understanding in the research area with specific reference to knowledge related to self-esteem, young carers’ socio-demographic characteristics, the well-being of young carers, and the role of the educational psychologist. It is also intended to provide a critical account of the research process from inception to dissemination.

Although there is an identified need for psychological services to work therapeutically with young adults leaving care (care leavers), there is a paucity of research examining the psychological constructs which may underlie reported distress in a care leaver population. There are plausible links between attachment theory and schema theory, but research investigating them is in its infancy. If made clearer, such links may usefully guide therapeutic interventions for care leavers. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the self-reported psychological needs of care leavers. More specifically, the study aimed to examine the relationships between psychological distress, adult attachment, and early maladaptive schemas (EMS) in this group. The study also aimed to augment existing literature on the relationships between internal working models (IWMs) within attachment theory, and EMS within schema theory as conceptualised by Young et al. (2003). A total number of 50 care leavers aged 18-22 were recruited. They were all in contact with a leaving care team in one of five social services departments in South Wales. Self-report measures were used to assess psychological distress, adult attachment and EMS (considered within five schema domains). Care leavers with the highest reported levels of psychological distress also reported the highest degree of attachment anxiety (most negative IWMs of self), highest degree of attachment avoidance (most negative IWMs of others) and the most pronounced schema domains. Significant differences were observed in the reported levels of psychological distress and the prominence of schema domains in participants with different attachment styles, with most notable differences between the secure and fearful avoidant attachment style groups. Clinical and theoretical implications of the study findings are discussed in detail and areas for future research are suggested.

The body of work presented in this thesis results from an in depth investigation of the moral reasoning of male offending and male and female non-offending adolescents in the UK using the Sociomoral Reflection Measure-Short Form (Gibbs, Basinger & Fuller, 1992). In Chapter I a review of the research relevant to field of study was presented. In Chapter 2 findings from initial investigations into the patterns of moral reasoning of male offending and male and female non-offending adolescents were presented. Key aims of the studies presented in Chapter 2 were to replicate previous findings using the measure amongst offenders and non-offenders, in particular to test claims that offenders were morally immature in relation to non-offending peers, and to investigate gender differences on the measure. In line with predictions, the measure discriminated between offenders and non-offenders, with offenders having significantly lower mean scores than non-offenders. No gender differences were observed in the overall sample. However, some difficulties were found in discriminating between younger male offenders and male non-offenders. Tests of the internal characteristics of the scale were also performed. In Chapter 3, subsequent analyses of data were performed using "categorical" methods. This represented a novel means of tackling the data. A key aim was to test the Gilligan (1982) hypothesis that females and males differ in use of Stage 3 "mutual and prosocial" and Stage 4 "systemic and standard" reasoning. Results of the "categorical" analyses apparently corresponded to the Gilligan hypothesis. Patterns of intra-individual variability in moral stage use were also investigated to test claims regarding structural consistency in moral reasoning. It was found that participants were demonstrating intra-individual variability in their patterns of moral reasoning, this presented a challenge to certain aspects of the moral reasoning model. The final chapter summarised key findings to emerge from the thesis, and discussed these in theoretical context.