Stress and stress-related disorders have been on the increase both in the UK and worldwide. UK Governmental bodies have proposed guidelines for managing stress at work; however most are aimed at reducing and preventing stress in employees. There are also a number of stress management programmes in place (including self-help), but very few have been empirically validated in a middle management population. A novel stress self-help manual based on cognitive behavioural therapy was developed for middle managers and evaluated in this randomised controlled trial (RCT; N = 102). Four outcome measures were used to measure change: Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI; primary outcome measure), Symptom Assessment-45 (SA45), Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS), and the Job Stress Survey (JSS). Treatment effects were evaluated using analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) with post- treatment scores as dependent variables and pre-treatment scores as covariates. Significant changes were obtained on the BSI (P<0.001) at post-treatment, as well as on the SA45 (P<0.001) indicating intervention effectiveness regardless of the frequency of work stressors and lack of organisational support remaining unchanged. Measures of coping indicated that the intervention increased task, emotion, and distraction-oriented coping styles (P<0.001). The intervention was not found to effect the avoidance- oriented or social diversion coping styles. Regression analyses indicated that discussing the manual with others during the treatment protocol had a significant effect on outcomes, suggesting that future interventions should encourage groups within organisations rather than individual participation, or using the manual as an adjunct to various forms of psychological therapy. Qualitative data was also collated, which revealed that the participants felt more in control and confident after working through the manual. While further evaluation by independent researchers is recommended, including cost effectiveness analysis, the manual has shown initial effectiveness and is considered a potentially useful tool for the development of improvements towards managing and preventing stress.

The present thesis attempts to extend the knowledge of stress- health behaviours relationships by integrating social cognitive variables (i.e. from the TPB model) into the study of stress. This thesis also aims to elucidate how nationality and gender shape cognition, intention and health behaviour by utilizing samples representing both individualistic and collectivistic cultures (i.e. UK and Malaysia) and both genders. The results of a systematic review of relevant previous research examining the effect of stressor (i.e. perceived stress, work-family conflict, work stress and hassles) on health behaviours is reported first in Chapter 2. In pursuing the aims of this study, three empirical studies (Chapter 3-5) were conducted. Study 1 examined the utility of the TPB and the impact of perceived stress as well as additional variables on nine types of health behaviours using both cross sectional and prospective designs in student sample. In an attempt to further understand the effect of stressors on health behaviours, using a cross-sectional design, Study 2 examined the potential effects of job related characteristics (i.e. job demands, job resources, job hours) and work-family conflicts on five types of health behaviours in a sample of employees. Results of Study 1 and 2 highlighted the support for the efficacy of TPB which consistently accounted for the largest proposition of explained variance in intentions and behaviours. There was limited evidence to support the direct effect of stress in explaining intentions and behaviours, yet a role for stress within TPB was observed based on mediation and moderation approaches. Study 3 used a daily diary method to examine the effects of daily job related characteristics, work-family conflict, hassles on five types of health behaviours for 14 consecutive days. The results demonstrated that the effects of stressors were particularly associated with unhealthy behaviours including decreased fruit and vegetable intake, reduced physical activity and increased smoking. Following the empirical studies, Chapter 6 provides a summary of key findings, discussion, implication of the findings, limitations and also future directions for work in this area. Of note, the present thesis demonstrated the implication of incorporating variables from a social cognitive model (TPB) into the relationship between the study of stress and health behaviours, both from theoretical and practical perspectives.

The literature relating to interventions aimed at reducing or ameliorating distress after experiencing a post traumatic event was reviewed. Both preventative and intervention approaches have been investigated. No evidence was found for the effectiveness of population wide approaches to reduce later development of post traumatic stress symptoms. Interventions for early or sub-clinical levels of distress following a traumatic event were more effective. Good quality evidence only existed for cognitive behavioural approaches, although writing approaches appeared promising. All studies reviewed had a number of conceptual issues and methodological difficulties, including difficulties with defining post traumatic distress and outcome measurement. Areas for future research, including qualitative exploration of participants' experiences of such approaches, are discussed. Qualitative exploration of the experience of writing about a traumatic experience and sharing this online was undertaken. Twelve women were interviewed both after writing and after posting their writing online. Template analysis was used to develop nine themes reflecting a journey from deciding to write and share their stories, the process of writing and the impact of writing and sharing their stories online, both immediate and delayed. An overarching theme developed reflecting some women's feelings that they may not be justified in feeling traumatised. The contribution of these results to the understanding of writing about traumatic experiences and sharing these online is discussed, along with the implications for self help and support groups. Directions for further research are suggested, including further understanding of factors that may impact on the utility of writing about a traumatic event.

No description available.

CBT is well established as an effective treatment for a range of mental health problems and its use as a treatment for stress-related problems in occupational settings is also well evidenced; however, not every recipient of CBT necessarily shows improvement. Despite decades of research into the comparative effectiveness of psychological therapies like CBT, little is known still regarding how and why such therapies work. Mechanisms of change research in the field of therapeutic effectiveness has thus far focussed on therapy-specific variables or common factors such as therapist variables or the therapeutic alliance. Little attention has been paid to the role of individual client characteristics in processes of therapeutic change, and less still on psychobiological variables such as stress reactivity. High levels of stress reactivity have been found to constitute a risk factor for psychopathology, and further to impact upon cognitive processes of learning. The literature review herein explores this gap in knowledge and the research study that follows investigated the relationship of stress reactivity and learning ability to coping behaviour change. This was explored with a longitudinal control group design involving application of a brief CBT based stress management intervention to a university student population. Results found no positive intervention effect on coping behaviour change and no relationships with the variables of learning ability and stress reactivity; however, a negative relationship between these two variables was reported. Results and limitations of the study, along with implications for clinical practice are discussed.

Focusing upon solicitors working in private law firms in England and Wales, the study investigates the interrelationships between domain-specific and work-home interference factors and their predictive value in relation to different categories of strain symptomatology and satisfaction outcomes. The research also examines the moderating influences of gender and family type on the interface between work and home, and their differential impacts on well-being. Data were gathered in two stages. Stage one involved 20 interviews that allowed respondents to identify sources of work and home pressures for themselves. Content analysis of the interview transcripts facilitated the development of separate work and home pressure inventories. In addressing the difficulties associated with construct measurement, stage two developed an unorthodox approach for measuring both forms of work-home interference, which was part of an extensive survey instrument that included established outcome measures. The sample group was devised using a cluster sampling strategy whereby legal firms were grouped according to their size and then by regional cities. Nearly 2,500 surveys were distributed with a return rate of nearly 30%. The data set was split into two sub-sets via a cluster sampling strategy based on gender and family type to allow for a series of exploratory and confirmatory analyses in the development and testing of structural equation models of the work and home domain. A distinguishing feature of this study is its examination of the work-home interface at the microlevel, which involved developing a series of structural equation models relevant to the most salient sources of work-home interference and domain-specific pressures experienced by solicitors. Through a series of exploratory and confirmatory analyses, the study' tested three differing sets of explanatory relations as to the interplay between specific aspects of the two domains, and the implications of this interplay for a range of outcomes. The findings provide strong empirical support to assert that work-to-home interference (e. g., concerns over ability) and home-to-work interference (e. g., unfulfilled domestic responsibilities) represent two distinct dimensions of individuals functioning with different rates of prevalence and different role related antecedents and outcomes that indicate that solicitors are being stretched in both domains. The empirical evidence indicates an increasing convergence in the public and private roles of male and female solicitors, highlighting the importance of both sexes having the opportunity to attain a balance between the domains of work and home. The study also demonstrates that work-home interference is not exclusively a problem for employees located in traditional nuclear families and shows that solicitors within differing familial situations (e. g., single persons) experience high levels of work-home interference that can exacerbate domainspecific pressures resulting in a poor state of health and low levels of work and home satisfaction.

The aim of this study was to demonstrate how postgraduate students cope with the stress induced while adjusting to the various proposal and research report writing phases they are involved in. It is further purported that difficulties in adjusting to the various proposal and research report writing phases and lack of support lead to students experiencing stress. The population consisted of 815 students enrolled for masters and doctoral programmes at Unisa for the 2012 academic year. This study employed the Stress and Support Questionnaire for University Students to determine the stress postgraduate students encountered while adjusting to the proposal and research report writing phases they were in. Furthermore, this questionnaire was also used to understand how these students use support as a coping mechanism. The various research hypotheses were tested using an explanatory mixed method research design. The population consisted of 815 students enrolled for masters and doctoral programmes at Unisa for the 2012 academic year. Data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), Strata software and Microsoft Excel. Statistical analyses included tests, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and chi-square tests. The results demonstrated that students experience stress during the adjustment process to the various research report writing phases. However, masters students showed higher levels of stress while adjusting to the research report writing phases, compared with doctoral students. Some of the doctoral students reported that they felt fewer levels of stress, because they were already exposed to postgraduate studies and were aware of what is expected. Furthermore, students who reported feeling stress to a large extent indicated the reasons to be a lack of support from supervisors, delayed and insufficient feedback, lack of financial support, lack of social support, procrastination, and balancing work and studies. Some of the students iv indicated that they do not feel any stress at all because they have surrounded themselves with people who have travelled the path, and their environment is conducive to study. Support from colleagues at work, supervisors, friends and family have also shown to help students adjust to the research report writing phases of their programmes. Although some of the students indicated that they do not experience stress, it is imperative that interventions be designed for those students who do experience challenges when adjusting to the research report writing phases. / Psychology / MA (Psychology)

This study was undertaken with the objective of assessing whether the ingestion of a Multivitamin Complex with Calcium and Magnesium would be efficacious in reducing stress. Tlrree hundred subjects who were suffering from stress were selected in Gauteng and Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa. The selection was based on a stress questionnaire. The subjects took a battery of tests and questionnaires to assess the level ofthe stress they were experiencing. A 30 day supply of effeiVescent tablets was given to all subjects - half placebos and half the vitamin supplement. These were randomly allocated. At the end of30 days a further battery oftests were administered. The results were statistically analysed. It was found that both the placebo and the vitamin supplement proved beneficial but the Multivitamin Complex with Calcium and Magnesium had a greater effect in reducing and helping to manage stress. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

This study examines the impact of gender on the coping mechanisms employed to manage work-related stress. The aim of the investigation was to determine whether male and female professionals differ in terms of the coping mechanisms that they employ in managing work-related stress. In order to achieve this aim an assessment battery containing a Biographical Checklist, the Coping Checklist, the Hassles Scale and the Daily Uplifts Scale was distributed to a sample of professional men and women. The fmdings indicate that male and female professionals differ significantly in only two of the six coping mechanisms measured, namely social support and symptom management; that men and women do not differ significantly in terms of coping repertoire; and that women cope more effectively than their male counterparts with work-related· stress. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M.A. (Industrial Psychology)

The study undertook to explore the notion of stuckness within interpersonal and intrapersonal relationship dynamics. Stuckness has different presentations and can pertain to an individual’s’ inability to move beyond a particular challenge, or find resolution to one or more persistent problems. Alternatively, the stymied dynamic could manifest as a person becoming consistently highly activated or triggered. This has negative ramifications, within both interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships. Therapeutically, psychological stuckness is frequently encountered, and a lack of resolution of past trauma, is speculated as being a contributory factor. A qualitative, explorative research study was conducted over a period of one year, to collect data. The research design consisted of five case studies of participants who engaged in approximately one year of therapy. Participants were seen fortnightly, by a clinical psychologist, who is also the researcher of the study. The notes taken in the therapy sessions, as well as other qualitative methods, were utilised to collect the data. The data was analysed for themes formulated by the researcher, which themes correlated with the principles of the two schools of thought applied in the study. Logotherapy and somatic experiencing are the therapeutic interventions, which were included in the research method. These approaches were utilised in an endeavour to explore their efficacy, in resolving stuckness, speculated as being due to unprocessed trauma. Participation in the study was voluntary and boundaries of ethical codes, as well as values of psychotherapeutic therapy adhered to. There was no monetary exchange for the therapy received, and no costs incurred to the participants, in the research study. The presence of a long-standing persistent problem, or issue (stuckness) that had belied resolution, was the main criteria for inclusion in the study. The research explored the possible association between unresolved trauma, as well as various types of interpersonal, and intrapersonal stuckness. Impulsivity, explosive tempers, irrationality, emotionality and bizarre acting out behaviours, are some of the presentations, that the study speculated, as being due to unprocessed traumatic energy. A contribution of this research is that there is an absence of any prior studies conducted which explores stuckness and its correlation with unresolved trauma. In addition, no other research assessing the combined, top-down, and bottom-up efficacy of the therapeutic approaches of logotherapy and somatic experiencing were sourced. Payne, et al. (2015 b) state that they could not find evidence of more than five papers which provided case studies on somatic experiencing as a trauma intervention. The number of studies undertaken on somatic experiencing in general, is also significantly limited (Changaris, 2010; Samardzic, 2010). This adds to the value, meaning and purpose of this research, as it is a unique endeavour, motivated by the researcher’s intention to add more value to individuals’ lives, especially when the presenting problem, appears to be unfathomable stuckness. In an absence of any understanding for the reasons for such stuckness, these people may experience significant distress at being stymied, within the self, or in relation to others, as well as feel at a loss for any possible recourse. This study could prompt other researchers to conduct similar investigations, not only of the combined body-based, and cognitive psychotherapuetic interventions, but also of the link between stymied interpersonal, as well as intrapersonal relationship dynamics, and trauma. The application of a mind, body and soul approach in the study, through the inclusion of logotherapy, is also relevant. In reviewing the direction of psychological fields, one can detect that the trends are towards constructs such as meditation, enlightenment, consciousness, meaning, purpose, mindfulness, presence, and spiritual identity. Individuals are seeking more enlightenment, and want to explore more of the noetic dimension, which I believe psychotherapy has to include, in order to meet the needs of an evolving society. / Psychology / D.Phil. (Psychology)