A importância da praga Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) deve-se não somente aos danos provocados às lavouras de milho, mas a capacidade de se alimentar de uma ampla variedade de famílias de plantas. Lagartas desta espécie são capazes de se adaptar a dietas contendo inibidores de peptidase de soja (IPS). Há uma hipótese de que a microbiota intestinal neste inseto poderia estar envolvida com estes mecanismos de adaptação. Neste contexto, um dos objetivos do trabalho foi verificar se estas bactérias poderiam alterar a expressão gênica de serino peptidases e atividade enzimática nestes lepidópteros em ensaios in vitro. Observouse que no tratamento com tetraciclina, não houve influência na alteração da expressão gênica e da atividade quantitativa das respectivas serino peptidases nas lagartas provenientes dos ambientes diferentes. Ao mesmo tempo, objetivou-se estudar se haveria uma contribuição das bactérias na atividade proteolítica intestinal de S. frugiperda ao longo do processo digestivo de insetos, analisando se influenciam no perfil qualitativo das serino peptidases intestinais destas lagartas em zimograma. As lagartas de campo que sofreram a primeira exposição à uma dieta com antibiótico aumentaram a atividade de duas peptidases provavelmente trípticas, também sintetizadas nos tratamentos com IPS e IPS com antibiótico provavelmente como provável resposta adaptativa. Para analisar o efeito do IPS e da tetraciclina em folhas ingeridas por lagartas criadas em laboratório e coletadas em campo, além da influência da dieta natural (cartucho de milho) e da dieta artificial sobre a composição e diversidade da microbiota fecal de S. frugiperda, foi feito o sequenciamento das regiões V3-V4 do gene 16S rRNA de procariotos utilizando a plataforma de alto desempenho Illumina Miseq. Os valores médios de diversidade de UTOs do índice Shannon detectados nas fezes de S. frugiperda foram mais baixos nas amostras de dieta artificial e o segundo índice médio mais baixo foi calculado naquelas provenientes de cartucho de milho no campo, revelando que ambas as amostras apresentaram menor diversidade de espécies na composição da comunidade bacteriana. A abundância relativa em nível de filo bacteriano gerada para todos os conjuntos de amostras fecais demonstrou que os filos mais predominantes foram Proteobacteria (73,3%) e Firmicutes (24,2%), sendo ambos os filotipos mais abundantes nos grupos de insetos. Os quatro filotipos mais abundantes em nível de gênero corresponderam a Enterococcus (23,5%), Acinetobacter (20,5%), Stenotrophomonas (11,4%) e Klebsiella (10,4%). Verificamos que a dieta foi a principal variável que modulou a estrutura das comunidades bacterianas das fezes de S. frugiperda. Entretanto, não é possível afirmar se haveria uma contribuição das peptidases das bactérias simbiontes ao processo digestivo de insetos. Com estes novos dados taxonômicos, poderemos isolar as bactérias a partir das fezes destas lagartas e estudar a significância funcional destes simbiontes tais como, detoxificação de compostos tóxicos como inibidores de peptidases de plantas, papel digestivo e nutricional destas bactérias para as lagartas desta espécie. / The importance of the pest Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is due not only to corn crops damage, but the ability to attack a wide variety of plant families. Caterpillars of this species are able to circumvent diets containing soybean peptidase inhibitors (SPI). There is a hypothesis that this insect gut microbiota might be involved in these adaptation mechanisms. One of the goals of this study was to determine whether these bacteria could alter the serine peptidase gene expression or enzymatic activity in vitro assays in these Lepidoptera. It was observed that there was no alteration of the gene expression and the quantitative activity of serine peptidases in the caterpillars collected from both different environments fed with tetracycline leaves. At the same time, other objective was to study if there was a contribution from bacteria in the gut proteolytic activity of S. frugiperda in the digestive process of insects, analyzing its influence in the qualitative profile of serine peptidase gut worms in zymogram. The field caterpillars that suffered the first exposure to a diet with antibiotic increased the activity of two probably tryptic type peptidases which were also synthesized in IPS and IPS plus antibiotic treatments, probably as likely adaptive response. In order to analyze the effect of IPS and tetracycline in leaves eaten by caterpillars reared in the laboratory and collected in the field, beyond the influence of the natural diet (maize cartridge) and artificial diet on the composition and diversity of fecal microbiota of S. frugiperda, the sequencing using high performance Miseq Illumina platform was done in V3-V4 regions of 16S rRNA gene typical of prokaryotes. The average values of Shannon index related to OTUs diversity detected in the feces of S. frugiperda were lower in artificial diet samples and second lower mean index was calculated from those collected in the field, showing that both samples showed lower species diversity in the composition of bacterial communities. The relative abundance of bacterial phylum level generated for all fecal samples showed that the most prevalent phyla were Proteobacteria (73.3%) and Firmicutes (24.2%). Both phylotypes are predominant in insect groups. The four most abundant phylotypes at genus level accounted for Enterococcus (23.5%), Acinetobacter (20.5%), Stenotrophomonas (11.4%) and Klebsiella (10.4%). We found that the diet was the main variable that modulated the bacterial communities structure in the feces of S. frugiperda. However, it is not possible to state that there would be a contribution of peptidase bacterial symbionts to the digestive process of insects. With these new taxonomic data, we may isolate bacteria from S. frugiperda feces and study the functional significance of these symbionts such as detoxification of toxic plant compounds as inhibitors of peptidases, the digestive and nutrition role of these bacteria for the caterpillars species.

Les abcès cérébraux sont des infections potentiellement mortelles, entraînant souvent des séquelles graves. La prise en charge médicale en reste empirique en raison d’un manque de connaissance approfondie des microorganismes responsables de cette condition. Dans la plupart des laboratoires microbiologiques, le diagnostic d’abcès cérébral est basé sur la culture du pus recueilli chirurgicalement. Malheureusement, cette procédure a de nombreuses limites et ne permet l’identification que d’une petite partie de la population microbienne en cause. L’amplification par PCR et le séquençage du gène codant la fraction 16S de l’ADN ribosomal ont récemment été utilisées pour surmonter les limites de la culture, et ont été démontré leur efficacité dans la documentation des infections bactériennes. Malheureusement, cette procédure présente un degré de discrimination limité en cas d’infection polymicrobienne. Des études métagénomiques de flores complexes de l’homme, basées sur une combinaison de PCR, clonage et séquençage des produits de PCR se sont avérées utiles pour évaluer la diversité bactérienne des flores dentaires, vaginales et intestinales. Nous avons appliqué cette technique à des échantillons d’abcès cérébral pour étudier la flore associée à cette maladie. Dans une première étape, nous avons réalisé une enquête en utilisant la culture et les techniques moléculaires. Le but de cette étude était d’analyser et d’évaluer les bactéries de la flore responsable des abcès cérébraux, en comparant la culture à trois techniques moléculaires basées sur le gène 16S rDNA, incluant le séquençage direct, le clonage suivi de séquençage par méthode de Sanger, et le séquençage direct des produits de PCR par pyroséquençage. Cette enquête a déterminé que la variété des espèces bactériennes associée aux abcès cérébraux est beaucoup plus grande que précédemment décrite, et inclut de nombreuses bactéries anaérobies et des bactéries incultivables de la flore buccale. Cette étude préliminaire a identifié 49 agents bactériens différents, et a permis l’identification de 27 bactéries jamais détectées auparavant dans des abcès du cérébraux, dont 15 n’avaient jamais été cultivées. Un tel nombre d’espèces bactériennes impliquées dans les abcès cérébraux a motivé l’étude de 51 nouveaux spécimens dans le but de décrire plus en détail la flore associée aux abcès cérébraux en fonction de leurs étiologies. Ainsi, nous avons effectué une analyse métagénomique, basé sur le gène 16S rDNA, de 51 patients ayant développé un abcès cérébral. Notre stratégie a été beaucoup plus discriminatoire et a permis à l’identification d’un plus grand nombre de bactéries que la culture et l’amplification et le séquençage direct de l’ANRr 16S. La combinaison des données de 71 patients (20 de la première étude et 51 de la deuxième étude) a permis l’identification de plusieurs associations à l’aide de la méthode de data mining.En outre, notre étude a permis l’identification de deux nouvelles bactéries, la première étant une nouvelle espèce de genre Staphylococcus (Staphylococcus massiliensis) et la seconde étant une bactérie anaérobie qui représente une nouvelle espèce dans un nouveau genre au sein du phylum des Bacteroidetes (Phocaeicola abscesses). En outre, nous avons décrit deux cas inhabituels d’abcès du cerveau, à Mycoplasma hominis après curetage utérin, et à Nocardia carnea chez un greffé rénal. Malgré les limites inhérentes à la procédure de clonage, nos résultats suggèrent que le clonage et le séquençage de gène DNAr 16S est une méthode très performante pour identifier les agents bactériens associés aux abcès cérébraux. / Brain abscess is a life-threatening infection with frequent serious sequelae. The medical management remains empirical due to a lack of comprehensive knowledge of the microorganisms responsible for this condition. In most microbiology laboratories the diagnosis of brain abscess is based on culture from pus collected surgically. Unfortunately, this procedure has many limitations and reveals only a small portion of the true microbial population. PCR-amplified 16S rDNA sequencing has recently been used to overcome the limitations of culture-based bacterial detection in brain abscess pus, and it was demonstrated to be effective in the documentation of monomicrobial infections. Unfortunately, this procedure failed to discriminate among polymicrobial floras.Metagenomic studies of complex human floras using a combination of 16S rDNA PCR and cloning-sequencing of PCR products proved useful to evaluate the bacterial diversity of dental, vaginal and intestinal floras. Thus, we applied this technique to brain abscess samples to study the flora associated with this condition. In a first step, we performed an investigation using culture and molecular techniques. The purpose of this investigation was to analyze and evaluate the bacterial flora responsible for brain abscess by comparing standard culture technique to three techniques using 16S rDNA amplification, that is, direct sequencing, multiple sequencing following cloning, and multiple sequencing via high throughput pyrosequencing. This investigation has determined that the variety of brain abscess-associated bacterial species is much larger than previously reported, and it includes many anaerobes and uncultured bacteria from the oral cavity flora. This preliminary study identified 49 distinct brain abscess bacterial agents, and enabled the identification of 27 bacteria never detected before in brain abscess, 15 of which were uncultured.Such a high number of bacterial species involved in brain abscess prompted the study of 51 new specimens in an effort to describe further the flora associated with brain abscesses and their etiologies. Thus, we performed a 16S rDNA-based metagenomic analysis of cerebral abscesses from 51 patients. Our strategy was significantly more discriminatory and enabled the identification of greater number of bacterial taxa, than culture and conventional 16S rDNA PCR/sequencing, respectively. The combination of data from 71 patients (20 from the first study and 51 from the second study) enabled the identification of several associations using the data mining analysis. Also, these studies permitted the identification of two novel bacteria, the first being a novel Staphylococcus species (Staphylococcus massiliensis) and the second being a novel anaerobic bacterium that represents a novel species in a new genus within the phylum Bacteroidetes (Phocaeicola abscesses). In addition, we reported tow unusual cases of brain abscess, the first case was a Mycoplasma hominis brain abscess following uterus curettage and the second case was a Nocardia carnea infection in a kidney transplant recipient patient.Despite limitations inherent to the cloning procedure, our results suggest that cloning and sequencing of PCR-amplified 16S rDNA is a highly valuable method to identify bacterial agents of brain abscesses.

La PCR universelle ciblant le gène codant pour l'ARNr 16S à l'aide d'amorces universelles, a d'abord été développée pour des études phylogénétiques. En effet ce gène est universellement retrouvé chez les bactéries et sa fonction est conservée. Ainsi, il peut servir d'« horloge moléculaire » pour mesurer les distances phylogénétiques entre les différentes espèces bactériennes. La PCR universelle a ensuite été appliquée en microbiologie clinique dans deux domaines distincts : la détection et l'identification bactériennes. Dans ce travail, nous avons évalué l'applicabilité de la PCR « universelle » 16S comme outil diagnostique dans un centre hospitalier universitaire (hôpital la Timone, Marseille, France). Tout d'abord, nous avons décrit comment la PCR universelle permet l'identification de souches bactériennes mal identifiées par les techniques phénotypiques conventionnelles. Puis, nous avons montré que la PCR universelle peut être utilisée pour détecter l'ADN bactérien dans des prélèvements à culture négative, soit parce que le patient a reçu une antibiothérapie préalable, soit parce que le microorganisme responsable est de croissance difficile. Enfin, nous avons montré que la PCR 16S utilisée pour l'identification permet de mettre en évidence des souches susceptibles de représenter de nouvelles espèces et/ou de nouveaux genres bactériens. Ainsi, la PCR universelle est applicable dans un laboratoire de bactériologie de routine dans les trois objectifs ci-dessus. Elle permet une identification précise des souches bactériennes et l'amélioration du diagnostic des infections associées à des cultures négatives et, par là-même, l'amélioration de la prise en charge des patients. / Broad-range 16S rDNA PCR using universal primers was first developed for phylogenetic purpose since 16S rRNA gene is found in every bacterial species with a conserved function; consequently 16S rRNA gene can be used as a molecular clock for assessing bacterial phylogeny. Broad-range PCR was then applied to medical microbiological diagnosis in two distinct fields: molecular detection and bacteria identification. In the present work, we evaluated the applicability of broad-range PCR as a diagnostic tool in a teaching hospital (Timone Hospital, Marseilles, France). First, we showed that broad-range PCR allows identification of bacteria obtained in culture but misidentified by conventional phenotypic methods. Second, we showed that universal PCR permits bacterial detection in culture-negative infection. Third, we exemplified that using broad-range PCR is a valuable tool to identify new bacterial species and/or genera. Consequently, universal PCR is applicable in routine laboratories in the three above fields; it allows a more accurate identification of bacterial strains and permits to diagnose culture-negative bacterial infections, thus improving patient's management. It also improves our knowledge of infectious diseases together with bacterial diversity and phylogeny. Although universal PCR presents certain limitations (discussed in this work), it remains today the gold-standard for molecular identification and detection in routine laboratories.

Chapter 2 The sea surface microlayer is a biogenic thin layer, comprising less than one millimeter of the ocean surface. This surface layer has gained much attention due to its dampening effect on ocean capillary ripples. The chemistry of the air-sea interface has been studied for decades; however, the structure and function of the marine bacterial community within the sea surface microlayer are still understudied. Although various sea surface microlayer sampling techniques were developed over the past decades, aseptic bacterial sampling in the open ocean is a rather challenging task. In this study, a new approach is presented. It is designed for bacterial sampling of the sea surface microlayer, which intends to reduce sampling contamination from the vessel, subsurface water and the investigators. A 47mm polycarbonate membrane was utilized at each sampling site. In addition, the metagenomic approach using the new generation 454 high-throughput DNA sequencing system was employed to compensate for the small sample size. Two sample sets were collected in summer 2010 and fall 2011 from the sea surface microlayer and underlying water (20 cm deep). A contamination assessment was carried out to determine that contamination might have been caused during the use of the sampling techniques. A total of 14,120 bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences with an average length of 437.8 bp were obtained. A total of 1,254 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) were constructed and 268 genera were identified. The results indicated that the bacterial compositions of the sea surface microlayer samples were distinct from those of the underlying water samples. This experiment demonstrated that the new generation sequencing platform and microbial metagenomics analysis software together served as powerful tools to gain a deeper understanding of microbial communities within the sea surface microlayer. Furthermore, it is suggested that the newly employed sampling methods could be used to obtain a snapshot of bacterial community structure as well as environmental conditions. Chapter 3 Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) remote sensing captures various fine-scale features on the ocean surface such as coastal discharge, oil pollution, vessel traffic, algal blooms and sea slicks. Although numerous factors potentially affect the SAR imaging process, the influence of biogenic and anthropogenic surfactants has been suggested as one of the primary parameters, especially under relatively low wind conditions. Surfactants have a tendency to dampen the short gravity-capillary ocean waves causing the sea surface to smoothen, thus allowing the radar to detect areas of surfactants. Surfactants are found in sea slicks, which are the accumulation of organic material shaped as elongated bands on the ocean’s surface. Sea slicks are often observable with the naked eye due to their glassy appearance and can also be seen on SAR images as dark scars. While the sources of surfactants can vary, some are known to be associated with marine bacteria. Countless numbers of marine bacteria are present in the oceanic environment, and their biogeochemical contributions cannot be overlooked. Not only do marine bacteria produce surfactants, but they also play an important role in the transformation of surfactants. In this study, we profiled the surfactant-associated bacteria composition within the biogenic thin layer of the ocean surface more commonly referred as the sea surface microlayer (SML). Bacterial samples were collected from the SML for comparative analysis from both within and outside of sea slick areas as well as the respective underlying subsurface water. The bacterial microlayer sampling coincided with SAR satellite, RADARSAT-2, overpasses to demonstrate the simultaneous in-situ measurements during a satellite image capture. The SML sampling method was designed to enable aseptic bacterial sampling. A 47 mm polycarbonate membrane was utilized at each sampling site to obtain a snapshot of the bacterial community structure at a specific space and time. Also, a new generation high-throughput sequencing method was employed to compensate for the small sample size acquired. A total of 27,006 nucleotide sequences (16S rRNA genes) with an average 437.8 bp in length were analyzed. The results revealed the presence of industrially important surfactant-producing marine bacteria, Acinetobacter, Bacillus, Corynebacterium and surfactant-degrading marine bacteria, Escherichia. In addition, Pseudomonas was detected which can be either a producer, decomposer or both. Recognizing that there is still a large number of marine bacterial species that have not been taxonomically classified nor recognized as surfactant-associated species, the effects on SAR imaging due to a high number of surfactant-associated marine bacteria is expected. This study has provided the basis for the biological importance for fine-scale synthetic aperture satellite imaging. Moreover, this new approach is expected to have applications in monitoring biological and chemical properties of the sea surface across the globe.

O gênero Yersinia compreende 12 espécies. Y. enterocolitica, Y. pseudotuberculosis e Y. pestis são patógenos de vários animais, incluindo os humanos. Y. aldovae, Y. bercovieri, Y. frederiksenii, Y. intermedia, Y. kristensenii, Y. aleksiciae, Y. mollaretti e Y. rhodei são encontradas sobretudo no meio ambiente e alimentos e consideradas, usualmente, como bactérias oportunistas não-patogênicas e Y. ruckeri é um importante patógeno de peixes. Usualmente, as linhagens de Yersinia são classificadas em espécies de acordo com suas características bioquímicas. O Laboratório Nacional de Referência em Yersinia spp. outras que Y. pestis recebeu mais de 700 linhagens que foram identificadas bioquimicamente. Entretanto, sete linhagens de Yersinia não puderam ser identificadas pelos testes bioquímicos convencionais em nenhuma das espécies até o momento conhecidas e, por esse motivo, foram denominadas Yersinia atípicas. Os objetivos desse trabalho foram identificar as linhagens atípicas de Yersinia spp. em espécies por técnicas moleculares como Enterobacterial Repetitive Intergenic Consensus PCR (ERIC-PCR), Eletroforese em Campo Pulsado (PFGE), sequenciamento do gene 16S rRNA e Multilocus Sequencing Typing (MLST) e definir dentre as metodologias empregadas a que mais contribui para a identificação precisa dessas linhagens. Foi estudado um total de 59 linhagens de Yersinia spp., sendo 52 linhagens representantes das diferentes espécies do gênero e sete as linhagens bioquimicamente atípicas de Yersinia. As técnicas de ERIC-PCR, sequenciamento do gene 16S rRNA e o MLST foram eficientes na identificação molecular do gênero Yersinia, uma vez que conseguiram reunir todas as espécies em ramos espécie-específicos, com exceção de algumas linhagens de Y. frederiksenii e Y. kristensenii. A técnica de PFGE, pelo contrário, não agrupou as linhagens estudadas em clusters espécie-específicos. Os dados de ERIC-PCR, sequenciamento do gene 16S rRNA e MLST, sugerem que as linhagens atípicas FCF 229 e FCF 231 pertençam à espécie Y. ruckeri. Os dados de ERIC-PCR e MLST sugerem que a linhagem atípica FCF 487 pertença à espécie Y. enterocolitica. Ademais, os dados de ERIC-PCR, sequenciamento do gene 16S rRNA e MLST sugerem que as linhagens atípicas FCF 216, FCF 465, FCF 457 e FCF 494 pertençam a espécie Y. massiliensis. Os resultados obtidos nesse trabalho fornecem dados importantes para a caracterização molecular de linhagens bioquimicamente atípicas de Yersinia e contribuem para uma melhor descrição do gênero quanto a sua diversidade e reforçam o MLST como uma técnica confiável e reprodutível a ser usada na identificação de bactérias pertencentes a esse gênero, sendo dentre as metodologias utilizadas nesse estudo a mais indicada para tipagem molecular de yersiniae. / The genus Yersinia comprises 12 species. Y. enterocolitica, Y. pseudotuberculosis and Y. pestis are pathogens of various animals, including humans. Y. aldovae, Y. bercovieri, Y. frederiksenii, Y. intermedia, Y. kristensenii, Y. aleksiciae, Y. mollaretti and Y. rohdei have been mostly found in the environment and food sources and are commonly considered to be opportunistic nonpathogenic bacteria and Y. ruckeri is an important fish pathogen. Usually, Yersinia strains are classified into species according to their biochemical characteristics. The Brazilian Reference Center on Yersinia spp. other than Y. pestis received more than 700 strains that were biochemically identified. However, seven strains that were typed as Yersinia could not be biochemically identified in any one of the currently known Yersinia species and for this reason they were named as atypical strains. The aims of this work were to identify into species the atypical Yersinia strains using molecular techniques as Enterobacterial Repetitive Intergenic Consensus PCR (ERIC-PCR), Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE), 16S rRNA gene sequencing and Multilocus Sequencing Typing (MLST) and to define which methodology better contribute to the identification of those strains. A total of 59 Yersinia spp. strains were studied, being 52 representative strains of the defined Yersinia species and seven atypical Yersinia strains. ERIC-PCR, 16S rRNA gene sequencing and MLST were efficient in molecular identifying the genera Yersinia once they grouped the strains into species-specific clusters, with exception of some Y. frederiksenii and Y. kristensenii strains. However, PFGE was not capable to cluster the defined Yersinia strains into species-specific clusters. The data obtained by ERIC-PCR, 16S rRNA gene sequencing and MLST suggest that the atypical strains FCF 229 and FCF 231 belong to Y. ruckeri species. The data obtained by ERIC-PCR and MLST suggest that FCF 487 belong to the Y. enterocolitica species. Additionally, ERIC-PCR, 16S rRNA gene sequencing and MLST suggest that the atypical strains FCF 216, FCF 465, FCF 457 and FCF 494 belong to the Y. massiliensis species. The results obtained provide important data for the molecular characterization of biochemically atypical strains and contribute for a better description of the genera regardless its diversity. Furthermore, the results reinforce MLST as a trustful and reproducible technique to be used in the identification of bacteria of this genus, being among the methodologies studied the most recommended one to molecular type yersiniae.

A mastite bovina é considerada a doença de maior impacto nos rebanhos leiteiros, exercendo efeito econômico negativo sobre a produtividade e perdas significativas à indústria de laticínios. Tendo em vista os impactos na sanidade animal e os prejuízos econômicos acarretados, o objetivo deste estudo foi caracterizar de forma mais abrangente a comunidade microbiana presente em rebanhos leiteiros com mastite subclínica utilizado o sequenciamento parcial do gene 16S ribossomal RNA (rRNA). Especificamente, foram caracterizadas as comunidades bacterianas presentes em amostras de leite vindas de três fazendas comerciais, sendo que cada fazenda contribuiu com amostras com alta contagem de células somáticas (CCS > 200.000 cel./mL) e com baixa contagem (CCS < 200.000 cel./mL) perfazendo um total de 57 animais. O DNA total foi extraído e amplificado com os oligonucleotídeos iniciadores da região V3 e V4 do gene 16S rRNA. O sequenciamento foi realizado utilizando a tecnologia de sequenciamento de nova geração através do equipamento MiSeq (Illumina - San Diego, EUA). Para efeito de comparação, alíquotas de todas as amostras foram destinadas ao cultivo microbiológico para identificação de bactérias causadoras da mastite. Os fragmentos amplicons de todas as amostras foram submetidos a uma série de análises computacionais utilizando o programa QIIME. Após a avaliação adicional das sequências em nível de espécie, verificou-se que em geral as bactérias diagnosticadas por cultura geralmente não corresponderam com as sequências mais abundantes detectadas pelo sequenciamento. A análise da composição da microbiota de amostras de leite provenientes de animais saudáveis revelou a presença de uma grande diversidade de espécies bacterianas, mesmo que nenhuma bactéria tenha sido detectada por técnica de cultura. A espécie bacteriana mais abundante em todas as amostras foi Staphylococcus chromogenes. Staphylococcus aureus também foi detectada na grande maioria das amostras As diferenças na composição microbiana foram observadas entre as amostras quando a comparação foi feita de forma individual. Estas diferenças foram notórias em composição taxonômica e foram refletidas por intermédio das estimativas de alfa e beta diversidade. Quando a comparação foi realizada por separação de grupos com alta e baixa CCS, essa diferença não foi tão evidente. Com este estudo será possível compreender a diversidade dos microrganismos presentes na glândula mamária de animais saudáveis e com mastite subclínica. Essas informações podem ser úteis podendo contribuir no planejamento de medidas terapêuticas e preventivas mais eficazes da doença. / Bovine mastitis is considered the most impact disease in dairy herds, exerting negative economic effect on productivity and significant losses to the dairy industry. In view of the impact on animal health and carted economic losses, the objective of this study was to characterize more comprehensively the microbial community present in dairy herds with subclinical mastitis using the partial sequencing of 16S ribosomal RNA gene (rRNA). Specifically, the bacterial communities present in samples of milk coming from three commercial farms were identified, and each farm contributed samples with high somatic cell count (SCC> 200,000 cel./mL) and low count (SCC <200,000 cel./ml) for a total of 57 animals. Total DNA was extracted and amplified with primers of the V3 and V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. Sequencing was performed using the new generation of sequencing technology through MiSeq equipment (Illumina - San Diego, USA). For comparison, aliquots of all samples were intended for microbiological culture for identification of bacteria which cause mastitis. The amplicon fragments of all samples were subjected to a series of computer analyzes using the QIIME program. After further evaluation of the sequences at the species level, it was found that in general the bacteria do not generally diagnosed by culture corresponded to the most abundant sequences identified by sequencing. The analysis of milk samples from microbial composition from healthy animals revealed the presence of a diversity of bacterial species, even though no bacteria have been detected by culture technique. The most abundant bacterial species in all samples was Staphylococcus chromogenes. Staphylococcus aureus was also detected in most samples differences in microbial composition were found between the samples when a comparison was made individually. These differences were noticeable in taxonomic composition and were reflected by means of the estimates of alpha and beta diversity. When comparison was performed by separation of high and low groups with CCS, this difference was not so evident. This study will be possible to understand the diversity of microorganisms present in the mammary gland of healthy animals and with subclinical mastitis. This information can be useful and can contribute in the planning of more effective therapeutic and preventive measures of the disease.

Bacterial water pollution is a significant problem because it is associated with reduction in the ‘quality’ of water systems with a potential impact on human health. Faecal indicator bacteria (FIB) are usually used to monitor the quality of water, and to indicate the presence of pathogens in water bodies. However, enumeration alone does not enable identification of the precise origin of these pathogens. This study aimed to monitor the quality of bathing water and associated fresh water in and out of the ‘bathing season’ in the UK, and to evaluate the use of microbial source tracking (MST) such as the host-specific based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and quantitative PCR (qPCR) to recognize human and other animal sources of faecal pollution. The culture-dependent EU method of estimating FIB in water and sediment samples was performed on beach in the South Sands, Kingsbridge estuary, Devon, UK- a previously ‘problematic’ site. FIB were present at significant levels in the sediments, especially mud, as well as fresh water from the stream and pond flowing onto South Sands beach. However, the quality of bathing water was deemed to be ‘good’ and met with the EU bathing water directive 2006. Using MST it was possible to successfully classify the nature of the source from which the bacteria came. PCR was applied to detect the Bacteroides species 16S rRNA genetic markers from human sewage and animal faeces. All water and sediment samples displayed positive results with a general Bacteroides marker indicating the presence of Bacteroides species. Host-specific PCR showed the human Bacteroides genetic marker only in the sediment of the stream. However, limitations in the ‘types’ of probes available and in the persistence of these markers were identified. Thus, novel dog-specific Bacteroides conventional PCR and qPCR primer sets were developed to amplify a section of the 16S rRNA gene unique to the Bacteroides genetic marker from domestic dog faeces, and these were successfully used to quantify those markers in water samples at a ‘dog permitted’ and ‘dog banned’ beach (Bigbury-on-Sea, Devon, UK). Generic, human and dog Bacteroides PCR primer sets were also used to evaluate the persistence of Bacteroides genetic markers in controlled microcosms of water and sediment at differing salinities (< 0.5 and 34 psu) and temperature (10 and 17 ºC). The rates of decline were found did not differ significantly over 14 and 16 days for the water and sediment microcosms, respectively. Beach sediments which were studied in this project may act as a reservoir for adhesive FIB, and this was confirmed using fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH). The similarity in the persistence of these Bacteroides 16S rRNA genetic markers in environmental water and sediment suggests that viable but non-culturable (VBNC) Bacteroides spp. do not persist in the natural environment for long. Therefore, 16S rRNA genetic markers can be of value as additional faecal indicators of bathing water pollution and in source tracking. Thus, in this study MST methods were successfully used and in future applications, dog-specific primer sets can be added to the suite of host-specific Bacteroides genetic markers available to identify the source(s) of problem bacteria found on failing beaches.

Background: Enteric methane from rumen methanogens is responsible for 25.9 % of total methane emissions in the United States. Rumen methanogens also contribute to decreased animal feed efficiency. For methane mitigation strategies to be successful, it is important to establish which factors influence the rumen methanogen community and rumen volatile fatty acids (VFA). In the present study, we used next-generation sequencing to determine if dairy breed and/or days in milk (DIM) (high-fiber periparturient versus high-starch postpartum diets) affect the rumen environment and methanogen community of primiparous Holstein, Jersey, and Holstein-Jersey crossbreeds. Results: When the 16S rRNA gene sequences were processed and assigned to operational taxonomic units (OTU), a core methanogen community was identified, consisting of Methanobrevibacter (Mbr.) smithii, Mbr. thaueri, Mbr. ruminantium, and Mbr. millerae. The 16S rRNA gene sequence reads clustered at 3 DIM, but not by breed. At 3 DIM, the mean % abundance of Mbr. thaueri was lower in Jerseys (26.9 %) and higher in Holsteins (30.7 %) and Holstein-Jersey crossbreeds (30.3 %) (P < 0.001). The molar concentrations of total VFA were higher at 3 DIM than at 93, 183, and 273 DIM, whereas the molar proportions of propionate were increased at 3 and 93 DIM, relative to 183 and 273 DIM. Rumen methanogen densities, distributions of the Mbr. species, and VFA molar proportions did not differ by breed. Conclusions: The data from the present study suggest that a core methanogen community is present among dairy breeds, through out a lactation. Furthermore, the methanogen communities were more influenced by DIM and the breed by DIM interactions than breed differences.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Entomology / Ludek Zurek / The larval stages of Culicoides sonorensis Wirth and Jones, a confirmed vector of bluetongue and epizootic hemorrhagic disease viruses affecting ruminants in North America, have been observed to occur typically in animal waste enhanced muds. In this dissertation, I studied the larval development (first instar to adult stage) and oviposition (four-choice assays) of C. sonorensis on sterilized mud (autoclaved) enriched with manure of different farm animal species (dairy cattle, beef cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, white-tailed deer, and chicken). In addition, to determine why only some manure-polluted sites are colonized by C. sonorensis even when they are in close proximity to each other, I examined the moisture levels and microbial concentrations (mud) and physicochemical characteristics (standing water) of a manure-overflow pond site producing C. sonorensis and compared them to nearby cattle stock pond site(s) that produced different Culicoides species. Finally, as the first step in examining the role of microbiome in various physiological functions of C. sonorensis and other suspected/potential vector Culicoides species, I assessed the bacterial communities in field-collected adult females of C. sonorensis, C. crepuscularis, C. haematopotus, and C. stellifer (Illumina sequencing of 16S rRNA gene). In larval development experiments, the proportion of adults emerged and development time to adult stage varied with manure type and its concentration present in the substrate. Mud supplemented with chicken manure did not support C. sonorensis development, mud enriched with white-tailed deer manure poorly supported midge development, while C. sonorensis development in mud enhanced with manure of sheep, goats, beef cattle, dairy cattle, pigs, and horses varied. In oviposition experiments, colonized females preferred to deposit eggs on substrates without animal manure over substrates with animal manure. In subsequent studies, the manure-overflow pond site that produced mainly C. sonorensis contained significantly higher total aerobic culturable bacteria, pH, salinity, total dissolved solids, and conductivity levels than cattle stock pond sites that produced different Culicoides species. Finally, bacterial composition of field-collected C. sonorensis adult females comprised mainly of the phyla Proteobacteria and Firmicutes, while the majority of bacterial taxa identified from C. crepuscularis, C. haematopotus, and C. stellifer belonged to Proteobacteria. An unidentified bacterial genus (related to Tumebacillus), Propionibacterium, and Curvibacter were detected commonly across all four midge species. These results suggest that manure of several farm animal species can contribute to C. sonorensis development in the field. However, oviposition preferences remain uncertain, as colonized females appeared to show aversion to animal manure, which is in contradiction to the typical presence of C. sonorensis larvae in animal waste enhanced muds. Nonetheless, variations in microbial and/or physicochemical conditions in the larval habitats likely play a role in the differential emergence of C. sonorensis from various manure-polluted sites. Moreover, some bacterial taxa are associated commonly with C. sonorensis and other suspected/potential vector Culicoides species. Future studies are needed to examine oviposition preferences of field-collected females, life history traits of adults emerging from various manure-enriched substrates, developmental requirements of larvae, and the role of microbiome in various physiological functions of the host including vector competence for orbiviruses.

This dissertation examines the microbial and functional diversity in Kartchner Caverns, a limestone cave in Arizona, USA. Kartchner is highly oligotrophic due to the lack of photosynthesis and the limited inputs of organic material from the surface. This characteristic poses a challenge for microbial life in the cave. The first objective of this work was to evaluate the bacterial richness, diversity and taxonomic composition of speleothems surfaces within Kartchner Caverns in order to gain insight into the distribution patterns associated with these communities. Secondly, the metabolic strategies used by cave communities to survive harsh cave conditions were investigated based on phylogenetic associations and metagenomics. Both objectives were directed toward answering the questions "who are there?" and "what are they doing?". The 454-pyrotag analysis of the V6 region of the 16S rRNA gene revealed an unexpectedly high bacterial diversity with each speleothem supporting a unique bacterial community profile. A focused study on one room of the cave revealed three community types: Type 1 was dominated by the phylum Proteobacteria; Type 2 by Actinobacteria; and Type 3 by Acidobacteria. Phylogenetic associations of the sequences generated by the 454 sequencing and by a Sanger clone library suggested cave microbial communities are supported by chemoautotrophic activities such as nitrite and iron oxidation. Results from the phylogenetic associations guided the metagenomic analysis which supports the presence of chemoautotrophic activities in the cave. Genes for two complete CO2 fixation mechanisms, the Calvin-Benson-Bashan and the rTCA cycles were identified in the cave metagenome, as well as genes for ammonia and nitrite oxidation. These genes are associated with both Bacteria and Archaea suggesting members of both domains are acting as primary producers in the cave ecosystem. Comparative analysis of cave samples to other environments suggests an overabundance of DNA repair mechanisms which could be potentially used by cave communities to overcome the toxicity due to high concentrations of calcium on the speleothem surfaces. This work provides the first comprehensive analysis of the microbial diversity and potential strategies used by microbial communities to survive under the extreme conditions found in a semi-arid limestone cave environment.