This thesis is a study of the classical Islamic Law of <i>Waqf.</i> This thesis is divided into two parts. Part One is focused on the nature of <i>waqf</i>, while Part Two is about the administration of <i>waqf</i>. Part One is divided into two chapters. Chapter One provides a discussion of the nature and the legal principles of the classical law of <i>waqf</i> according to the four Sunni schools of law. It serves as the basis for later discussion and argumentation. The origin of the law of <i>waqf</i> is also discussed in this chapter. Chapter Two focuses on the constituent elements of <i>waqf</i>. It then analyzes the conditions for the validity of the founder of a <i>waqf</i>, the subject of a <i>waqf</i>, the object of a <i>waqf</i> and the declaration of <i>waqf</i> as provided by the classical jurists. Part Two comprises two chapters, i.e. Chapter Three and Chapter Four. Chapter Three discusses the office of the administrator of a <i>waqf</i> (<i>nazir).</i> It explores the discussion of the jurists regarding the role of the administrator of a <i>waqf</i> as well as his limit and power in the classical law. Chapter Four discusses the methods of maintenance and mobilization of <i>waqf</i> property. In tackling both parts a comparative approach has been taken, i.e., a comparison between the four sunni schools in matters concerning the principles of the schools in the classical Islamic law of <i>waqf.</i>

The principle of tazkryat al-nafs is central to Islam but despite this, relatively little work has been written, if compared to the vast volumes devoted to Islamic jurisprudence (fqh) or Prophetic narration (hadlth). In addition to this, much of what has been written has been within the general precepts of what is now termed tasawwuf, or Sufism and much of this work has been concerned with the post-Ghazzäli period. Despite this, many works had been written and indeed, the concept of tazkiyat al-nafs had been developed prior to the advent of al-Ghazzäli. One of the most influential scholars in the pre-Ghazzäli period within this field was the second/eighth century Muslim scholar Abu- Abd Allah al-Härith b. Asad al-Mubasibi, who was born in Basra around 165/782 but later resided in Baghdad, albeit a period of exile in Küfa, until his death in 243/857. Al-Mubasibi was also known for his skills in many disciplines, including the Qur'an, Prophetic narration (hadith) and scholastic theology (`Ilm alkaläm) but it is for his mastery in the field of Islamic spirituality and moral psychology for which he is remembered. Regardless of his favourable notoriety he was not without criticism, being repudiated by Imam Ahmad b. Ijanbal (d. 242/856) for his "unorthodox" views and reviled by Ahmad's subsequent followers Abu- Zur`a al-Räzi (d. 264/878), Ibn al-Jawzi(d. 297/910) and Abd al-Rahim Iragi (d.806/1403). Despite this, he was a prolific writer, reportedly authoring more than two hundred works, the most famous of which is perhaps Kltäb al-Ri'äya li Hugrlq A11äh. It was this latter, monumental work which drew the attention of the West in the form of the highly respected researcher Margaret Smith (d. 1970), who was the first European scholar to seriously address the life and works of this great exponent of tazkiya. This is not to say that al-Muhäsibi has been exhausted as an area of research however, as many of his works have been preserved and indeed, have been published, edited and annotated since the pioneering work of Smith. Thus, this research comprises: a) An examination of the linguistic and terminological usage of the terms tazkia and alnafs to determine an accurate understanding of these concepts within the framework of Islam. b) An extensive study of the historical period in which al-Muhäsibi lived, to assess the extent to which the political, social and economic factors played a part in his life and work. c) An extensive survey of the available biographical and historical sources, to produce an accurate and comprehensive account of this unique and extraordinary scholar's life. d) An assessment of al-Muhäsibi's works and an exposition of the author's understanding and methodology regarding the concept of tazkiyat al-nafs.

This study is about the concept of Hukm in the Qur'an. It follows a thematic method of analysis, collecting the occurrences of the root H-k-m in the Qur'an. Its concern is to explore the meanings of the root H-k-m and its derivatives as they occur in the Qur'an. The thesis consists of two parts, based on the two main meanings of the word Hukm. Part One, which consists of two chapters, discusses the meaning of Hukm as judgement. Chapter One focuses on judgement by God, while Chapter Two centres on judgement by others. Part Two consists of one chapter (Chapter Three) and aims at exploring the concept of wisdom as signified by derivatives of the root H-k-m. The thesis also gives consideration to other elements displayed by the occurrences of the root H-k-m. It aims to collect scattered information and build up a picture of the meanings of the word Hukm and their interrelationship with the other terms in the Qur'an. The thesis is thus a contribution towards solving the ambiguities in classical exegesis with regard to the meanings of the word Hukm, as well as correcting misunderstandings of the implications of this term in some modern scholarship.

This is an examination of the various ways in which Hindu religious traditions are being adapted and reinterpreted by people of Indian descent, now living in Edinburgh. It looks in particular at the development of worship in the context of an Edinburgh Hindu temple (Mandir), and how those involved in the temple project are constructing the notions of 'community' and 'Hinduism' around themselves. The Hindu population of approximately one thousand are divided into various groups and factions - particularly in terms of regional identity (mainly Panjabi and Gujarati) and migration history (approximately half were once resident in East Africa). Two communal institutions attempt to work across these lines of division - the temple, and a cultural organisation called the Edinburgh Indian Association. As they are an 'ethnic' minority group, it is important to consider the means by which religious and cultural ideas are being produced through interaction between Hindus and white Scots. Although principles of boundary maintenance and reactive ethnicity are useful for understanding these processes, it is also important to consider that notions of ethnic identity are often an area of intense creativity, and such creativity is as much the result of relationships within an 'ethnic' group as those between such groups. Edinburgh Hindus are reacting as much against each other as against white Scottish society. The presence of the Mandir is helping to produce several important changes within this population. Firstly, it is one of the main areas where this sense of ethnic identity is being developed. Secondly, it is a major social arena, in which the different groups and factions choose to gather together, and by doing so it encourages (and helps to construct) a sense of community. Thirdly, the notion of what it means to be a Hindu - and also of what 'Hinduism' actually is - is having to undergo rather considerable modification to accommodate the coming together of these different regional traditions. In fact, the notion that there is such a thing as 'Hinduism' is not without problems, since there are strong arguments to make that in India itself the various 'Hindu' religious traditions are not variations on a common religion, but actually distinct religions. At the same time, however, the notion that Hinduism is a unification of these diverse systems has a strong appeal to many Hindus, and has been used as the basis for several important reformist movements - such as Arya Samaj and Swaminarayan, as well as the 'counter-reformist' version of Hinduism called Sanatan Dharrn. These three traditions have been very important within the various Hindu diasporas, particularly in East Africa, and indirectly have had a strong influence in Edinburgh. However, to understand the role of Hinduism within the Edinburgh Mandir, it is also necessary to understand both the history of the temple project and of the community that is based around it. This is discussed with reference to the present day structures and organisation of the temple, the plans for the future, and the political relations between the temple leaders. This also provides the background for understanding the forms of worship that are being developed at the temple meetings. The main religious gathering - called a satsang - is first described, and then discussed with reference to how it is used as a forum in which the different regional Hindu traditions can come together without being too radically compromised. This is particularly because of the symbolic nature of these types of worship, which allow for multiple meanings and understandings within a common ritual form. This use of temple worship as an arena for divergent religious traditions is part of a process in which the temple congregation is becoming identified as a community, and at the same time this community is becoming identified with the wider concept of the 'Hindu community'. This construction is 'imagined' to a large degree by external agencies, it is also becoming an important symbolic idea (again with multiple meanings) for most Hindus living in Edinburgh. These processes of ideological construction are occurring at the same time as the physical construction of the temple building. That is, as the shape of the building is designed and constructed, the community itself - along with the notion of Hinduism - are also being created out of divergent elements. Although the temple building will one day be complete and concrete, the construction of the notions of Hinduism and community can never be complete, they are always fluid and indefinite.

This thesis exammes the image of Solomon in Flavius Josephus, chiefly in his Solomon narrative in the Jewish Antiquities from a socia-cultural perspective. It is intended as a contribution to the as yet inadequate assessment of Josephus's characterization of Solomon. The study is divided into four sections which investigate Josephus's presentation of Solomon as sage, as temple builder, as mler and as sinner. The investigation shows how in various ways Josephus writes within the Jewish tradition and belongs in the genre of 'rewritten Bible'. However, his professed primary concern is not to produce an updated version of the Bible, but to present the first complete history of the Jews to the Gentile audience through the medium of the Bible. The major themes presented in Josephus's Solomon narrative are not presented as isolated elements, but woven together into an interdependent system. They are consistent with those themes recurrent in the whole biblical narrative which help interpret how Josephus wishes Judaism and the Jews, their past and present, to be understood by the Gentile readers. The Greek forms and conceptions in Josephus indicate that by the time of Josephus, Greek culture has become prevailing in the Greco-Roman world, which Judaism draws into itself. What Josephus tries to do is not to 'hellenize' Judaism in order to make it more Greek, but to 'universalize' it in Greek ways in order to make its distinctive aspects intelligible and respectable. Apologetic tendencies 111 Josephus's Solomon narrative are obvious. Nevertheless, the overall presentation of the Solomon narrative does not lead to the conclusion that Josephus's Antiquities should be seen as a primarily apologetic history. There is a clear distinction between this work and the treatise Against Apion. StilL patriotism and pride in Judaism contribute a great deal to the way Josephus presents the image of Solomon as it is. The study shows that the possibility is high that Josephus may have used both Greek and the Hebrew Bible. The fact that Josephus shuttles between the books of Sam-Kings and Chronicles for building up his image of Solomon shows how effectively Josephus uses the biblical material to achieve his own purposes. He also exhibits a high proficiency in incorporating into his own account some elements and concepts found in other books of the Bible. The image of Solomon in Josephus shows how much the Jewish authors depend on the Bible to express their past and present and at the same time how flexibly they treat the material in order to bring its significance up to date. This is, perhaps, where the everlasting vitality of the Bible lies.

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