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It has been argued that concepts of independence and care are often interpreted differently and more restrictively for older adults. Services are typically more concerned with issues of safety than with enabling participation or inclusion. Whilst the rhetoric of housing and care for older adults tends to be underpinned by ideas about independence, privacy, dignity and choice, there appears to be a paradox between these concepts and the goals of regulatory policy with its emphasis on safety, performance, and monitoring. Care homes exemplify this paradox where an imperative for ‘homely values’ contrasts with the application of safety regulation designed to protect people ‘at work’ from harm. This study offers a new and original qualitative data set providing an empirically grounded and context based understanding of how important social and regulatory policy has been translated into local policy, applied by staff and ultimately experienced by residents. The research design comprises qualitative semi-structured interviews, observation and the evaluation of documentary sources positioned within an eight care home case study framework. The primary sources of data are care home inspection reports and semi-structured qualitative interviews with residents, staff and home managers. The analytical framework includes thematic analysis within a system oriented Grid and Group typology designed to elucidate how the different case study homes apply regulation, interpret risk, and subsequently how this shapes participant experience. The findings would suggest that the contemporary regulation of residential care homes has placed a greater emphasis on the application of health and safety law than ever before. This appears to have had the effect of setting a ‘risk’ and ‘rule’ based agenda that has proved highly influential in terms of the cultural orientation of the case study homes and the choices available to those who live within them.

Contemporary accounts of attachment theory are usually provided in terms of the mother-child dyad, isolated from the family. This focus has served to ostracise the caregiving context, once viewed as central to understanding child attachment quality (Bowlby, 1969/1982). While a call for more contextual attachment research has been in place for some time, there remains a lack of ecologically valid attachment research. Observations of naturally occurring family interactions were assessed using the Attachment Q-Set, the Parental Secure Base Support Q-Set, Ainsworth’s Sensitivity scale and Bales analysis. In addition, parental and nursery reports of the Teachers Checklist for Social Behaviour and the Child Behaviour Scale were collected. In doing so, the current research expands upon knowledge related to the role of mothers, fathers, family structure, siblings and the stability of attachment in the home. Study One examined the validity of measuring attachment quality in the presence of the family by establishing links between maternal attachment and both maternal sensitivity and child-peer interactions. Study Two went on to establish similar associations between paternal attachment and both paternal sensitivity and child-peer interactions. Study Three investigated differences between maternal attachment quality, mother-child interactions and child-peer interactions across three family types (those with an absent father, uninvolved father and involved father). Study Four investigated differences in sibling attachment. Study Five explored the role of the child’s context in their stability of attachment quality over six months and Study Six extended this by exploring attachment stability in a military family case study over a year. In summary, the results suggest that a focus on the mother-child dyad limits our understanding of child attachment. Centrally, rather than being a secondary caregiver, paternal attachment quality was associated with both paternal sensitivity and child-peer interactions. The thesis concludes that in order to further our understanding of attachment theory, research should incorporate the child’s natural caregiving context with other family members present.

This PhD is an empirical investigation of how the evolution of adoption agency policy and practice in the twentieth century has impacted upon birth mothers’ motives for relinquishment, and their experiences of adoption. It examines how birth mothers have reached decisions about the adoption of their children, their role in the adoption process and how these answers have varied historically. Further, it attempts to understand the relationship between birth mothers’ experiences and wider moral, social and policy environments and how adoption agencies have mediated that relationship. Attitudes towards initiating and maintaining contact are also examined. Understanding changes in birth mothers’ options, motives and experiences of adoption have important implications for the adoption support services offered by adoption agencies. This thesis used a mixed methods approach, combining documentary analysis, with interviews and focus groups. This PhD draws upon archival materials collated from adoption case files, adoption panel meeting minutes (APMM), annual reports and other official documentation. It also utilizes evidence collated interviews carried out with six former Family Care personnel and professionals from six other adoption agencies, along with two focus groups carried out with the seven members of Family Care’s current adoption team. Historical research was fundamental to the methodological approach utilised in this PhD in order to uncover changes in birth mothers’ motives and experiences of adoption. In empirically evidencing the reasons for changes in birth mothers’ options, motives and experiences of adoption throughout the 20th century, this thesis makes important contributions to understanding the constraints posed by birth mothers’ gendered and socio-economic identities on their options and motives for adoption. This study also provides a theoretical framework to understand the evolution of child adoption in terms of historic periods, characterised by differing social, moral, religious and legal contexts. This theoretical framework is used to develop a holistic understanding of how different factors came together in the lives, choices and experiences of birth mothers, through the mediating influence of adoption agencies policies and practices. The theoretical framework has been important in clarifying the role of adoption agencies and adoption social workers in how they have shaped the choices and options available to birth mothers. Whilst doing so, it has been possible to map and evidence the influence of changing ideological and professional discourses; changes in agency religious affiliations and moral agendas; and changes in the external policy environment in birth mothers’ options and experiences of adoption. Findings show that these factors have collectively been responsible for birth mothers’ changing options, motives and experiences of adoption.

This thesis was undertaken to investigate students’ perceptions of the personal characteristics of university lecturers in Libyan universities. These perceptions were investigated using three measures. These included two scales translated for the first time from English into Arabic: the ‘Index of Learning Style’ (Felder & Soloman, 1988); and Goldberg’s personality scale (Goldberg, 1999) to measure students’ learning styles and personality types; and the main study questionnaire developed by the researcher (‘the personal characteristics of university lecturer’s questionnaire’). The main sample in the current thesis comprised 431 students from a Libyan public university (Sebha University). This sample was divided into four groups focusing on four aspects of the research: (1) group 1 was focused on determining the personal characteristics which students believe that a good university lecturer should have; (2) group 2 aimed to identify characteristics seen by students as insignificant for being a good university lecturer; (3) group 3 aimed to ascertain the students’ perspectives on the extent to which these characteristics were observed in their best lecturers; and (4) group 4 was also focused on determining through the students’ perspective the extent to which these characteristics were observed, but in the lecturer who they preferred least. The findings of the current research highlighted characteristics that students believe are significant for a good university lecturer, and those that were perceived as less significant for a good university lecturer. These findings were related to the demographic characteristics of the student sample, to their learning styles, and to their personalities.

This thesis explores the changing nature of theft from the person and robbery of personal property over a 17-year period (1994-2010/11) in England and Wales. Between 1995 and 2010/11, all crime recorded by the British Crime Survey (BCS) fell 50 per cent, with a 27 and 17 per cent fall in robbery and theft from the person respectively (Chaplin et al., 2011). Despite widespread attention, consensus regarding why we have witnessed these falls in crime has not been reached. Three specific areas are explored in relation to theft and robbery: 1. the goods stolen; 2. the characteristics of the individuals from whom goods are stolen; and 3. the circumstances in which they are taken. Fourteen sweeps of the BCS are employed to discern if any changes in their nature and composition coincide with the falls in crime. Various statistical methods are utilised including binomial logistic, negative binomial and zero-inflated negative binomial regression. There are a number of proposed contributions to knowledge from this research. Firstly, contrary to other crime types, the fall in theft and robbery since 1996 is largely comprised of a reduction in single victims. Secondly, this overarching trend is composed of two underlying trends: one which mirrors the more general decreases in crime, and one which reflects increased theft due to the greater availability of new, valuable and portable goods that are attractive to thieves, particularly mobile phones. Thirdly, age, sex, marital status, general health, frequency of activity outside the home, area of residence and car ownership/use consistently influence the incidence of theft and robbery over time. Finally, there are clear and significant differences in the characteristics of victims suffering completed and attempted victimisations. In sum, the thesis generates knowledge of the demographic characteristics, lifestyles, consumer goods, environments and circumstances which appear to foster greater exposure to victimisation. Offenders have a clear “repository of crime targets” (Jacobs, 2010: 523) both in terms of the victim and item(s) stolen. With regard to the crime drop, a multi-factor model is proposed with repeat victimisation and target suitability identified as key components.

This thesis aimed to enrich the existing research literature concerning sex offenders with an intellectual disability and to offer direct implications for the treatment of these individuals within the National Offender Management Service1 (NOMS). The thesis concerns the exploration of the beliefs about sex and relationships held by sex offenders who have an intellectual disability. Existing research literature indicates that this is an important and somewhat under-researched area. Indeed, we know that people with intellectual disabilities often experience impoverished or distorted sexual learning experiences and commonly lack knowledge or hold mistaken beliefs about sex and relationships. Additionally, there is evidence to suggest that those who sexually offend often have sex education needs. Yet we know little about the nature of the beliefs about sex and relationships held by sex offenders with an intellectual disability beyond quantitative insights offered by comparative studies. This thesis comprises five empirical studies which aimed to address this research gap. All of the studies employed qualitative methodology and recruited participants from a UK prison. The first study aimed to develop and evaluate a method by which beliefs about sex and relationships held by sex offenders with an intellectual disability could be explored. To do so, an existing sex and relationship beliefs exercise was taken from a NOMS sex offender treatment programme and adapted so that it was suitable for use with individuals who had an intellectual disability. The result was a battery of seven vignettes (short hypothetical stories) depicting sexual and relationship scenarios which could be used to explore the respondent’s beliefs related to the scenarios. By using the vignettes with a sample of six sex offenders who had an intellectual disability, the study demonstrated that the vignettes were successfully eliciting participants’ beliefs about sex and relationships. Furthermore, the vignettes appeared to be sensitive to the participants’ needs by, for example, alleviating the risk of potential response bias such as acquiescence. The second study used the vignettes to explore the beliefs about sex and relationships held by a sample of 21 sex offenders with an intellectual disability. These participants were presented with the vignettes as part of a semi-structured interview and the resulting data were analysed using inductive thematic analysis. The study found that the beliefs expressed by participants were largely idiosyncratic, however, a range of belief themes were also identified. Most striking were themes relating to misunderstandings about female sexuality and beliefs which were conducive to a restrictive sexuality. The third study sought to explore the contexts in which sex offenders with an intellectual disability developed their beliefs about sex and relationships. The 21 participants from the previous study were asked to describe their relationships, sexual experiences and learning histories. Participants also offered an account of their sexual offence(s). The resulting data were analysed using a deductive thematic analysis which was informed by existing literature on learning about sex and relationships. The study found that these individuals often had impoverished learning experiences. With little or no formal sex education many had relied upon limited and, at times, distorted information sources to inform their beliefs such as friends, pornography or their own experiences. The study was also able to identify links between participants’ beliefs about sex and relationships and their experiences, including their sexual offending. Having noted the frequency of response behaviours employed by participants when responding to the vignettes, the fourth study aimed to explore the way in which participants interacted with the vignettes. Using inductive thematic analysis on data from study two, three themes of response behaviour were identified: drawing upon experience, placing oneself within the vignette and building the story. These findings offer insight into the way in which participants’ formed their beliefs but also further our understanding about the function of the vignette methodology. The study also highlighted the value in encouraging participants to engage in a kinaesthetic mode of responding as this appears to facilitate the activation of in-action beliefs which often differ from beliefs expressed from an objective position. The final study sought to bridge the academic findings of the thesis with clinical practice by recruiting staff who work with sex offenders who have an intellectual disability within Her Majesty’s Prison service to use the vignettes as a therapeutic tool. Two therapist-client participant pairs were recruited and each pair carried out an hour therapy session, working through the battery of vignettes. The results indicated that the vignettes represent a useful clinical tool for the exploration of beliefs about sex and relationships held by this client group. The study did, however, highlight the need for the vignettes to be tailored for each individual and for the therapist to be flexible and creative in their use of the vignettes in order to maximise responsivity. As well as offering several original contributions to the research literature on sex offenders with an intellectual disability, this thesis presents direct implications for the treatment of these individuals within NOMS. One such implication is the inclusion of the vignettes as an exercise within a new sex offender treatment programme within NOMS which is accessed by sex offenders who have an intellectual disability.

Intelligence scales have become a commonly used method for the prediction of human performance across a variety of occupations and settings. Nevertheless, there is still debate among researchers about whether the results of these scales can be considered an accurate indicator of an individual's true capability or whether they also reflect the impact of personality traits on intelligence scores. Researchers have begun to investigate connections between neuroticism and intelligence scores, but the results of studies are somewhat conflicting and inconclusive. Moreover, it is noteworthy that few studies have considered cross-cultural differences in this relationship, and have systematically examined age and sex differences when explaining the relationship between intelligence scores and neuroticism. To replicate and extend previous work, four independent but related studies were conducted to explore the empirical relationship between neuroticism and intelligence scores, and the mediation effect of sex, age and cultural differences in this association. Study 1 investigated the psychometric properties of an English version of the Neurotic Behaviour Scale (NBS) among a student population of undergraduate students (N = 177). The NBS is a specifically-designed test by the author to measure the neuroticism trait among the Libyan population. The results confirmed the validity and reliability of using the English version of the NBS for the remaining studies in the thesis. Study 2 examined the relationship between intelligence and neuroticism scores using the Arabic version of the NBS and the Wechsler -Bellevue Intelligence Scale (WBIS) among a sample of Libyan students (N = 75). The findings revealed that while differences between the intelligence scores of the levels of neuroticism scores were not statistically significant, the scaled scores of the high-neuroticism group on the WBIS subtests were more scattered than other groups, and the differences were clinically significant on the Arithmetic, Information and Digit Symbol subtests. In Study 3, the English version of the NBS and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) were administered to 77 British students, ages between 16 to 26 years. The main finding of this study was that the effect of the high level of neuroticism on an individual’s performance on the Performance scale of the WAIS-III was higher than its effect on the Verbal scale. Finally, Study 4 provided an aggregated analysis of the data from Studies 2 and 3 to systematically compare the effect of cultural differences in explaining the relationship between neuroticism and intelligence scores (alongside age and sex differences). The results revealed that while sex and age differences in students’ neuroticism scores were similar across Libyan and British samples, there were differences in the relationship between neuroticism and intelligence scores across the two cultures. Findings are evaluated in light of recent empirical and theoretical developments relating to neuroticism and intelligence.

Baguley et al. (2006) have demonstrated that location memories are retrieved exclusively: when a person has two or more memories for an object’s location (which show the same object from different perspectives), only one representation can be retrieved at any one time. Whilst this finding is counterintuitive it has received some empirical support in the literature, although exclusivity has only been demonstrated using simplified stimuli. The central aim of this thesis was to probe the finding of exclusivity in memory for object location. A series of experiments addressed this aim. Experiment 1 probed the exclusivity hypothesis using visually enriched stimuli in both an incidental and intentional paradigm. Experiment 2 explored the effect of removing an anchor (point of reference) at retrieval. Experiment 3 investigated the role and effectiveness of different types of recall cues in the current paradigm. Experiment 4 considered the function and importance of the anchors with the current experiment framework, and Experiment 5 attempted to encourage participants to use multiple frames of reference to locate a target object. The principal findings of the thesis were: 1) further evidence of exclusivity, 2) increased recall accuracy without a change in retrieval strategy, 3) anchors might not always be necessary for location retrieval but might be useful when identifying the target object, and 4) that target object identity and target object location appear to be tied together. Therefore, the thesis conclusions are that the finding of exclusivity is robust and that further research is needed on the role usefulness of the anchors in memory for object location judgements.