Over the last few decades, Spain has become a popular retirement destination for British nationals. Most retire abroad when they are healthy; however, happy and fulfilling retired lives in Spain can abruptly change when a person's resources (bodily, economic and social) for independent living diminish. Therefore, the onset of old age can bring about severe vulnerability and the need for additional support becomes vital. This study looks at the lived experiences of vulnerable, older members of the British community as they age in Spain, focusing on those who are in serious need of help and support. It examines the nature of difficulties faced, as well as the networks and services that support these individuals. This thesis is a product of collaboration between academics and Age Concern in the UK and Spain. Through a survey of enquiries to Age Concern España and narrative interviews with vulnerable, older British households in Spain, the research examined the challenges and crises faced as a result of ageing, which tend to be centred on a decline in health, the need for care, bereavement and insufficient financial resources. These are common difficulties faced by many older people; however, this thesis looks at these challenges within the context of living in Spain where language, culture and legal barriers restrict access to support. Vulnerability largely arose due to the limited availability of and access to health/care services, as well as financial support in Spain. However, the ability to cope with vulnerability or a crisis also depended on the availability of social networks for support. The Grid and Group theoretical framework was utilised to examine the ways in which vulnerable, older British people in Spain respond to challenges or crises by drawing upon their social networks for support. This is the first time the framework has been used to look at vulnerability and support in old age. The findings of this study have been used to promote the needs of vulnerable older British people in Spain through a series of policy recommendations, as well as recommendations for good practice utilised by Age Concern España and other voluntary organisations in Spain.

People are increasingly using the Internet and mobile phone technology to communicate with others in their daily lives. Despite researchers' claims that cyber-harassment is becoming increasingly widespread, little is known about the phenomenon. This thesis adopted a mixed methods approach to gain a holistic understanding of the experience of cyber-harassment, how it is perceived by non-victims, and police officers' perceptions of, and role in combating the crime. Although cyber-harassment is a crime within the UK, prosecuted using the Protection from Harassment Act (1997), few may perceive it as such due to the virtual nature of the perpetrator's behaviour. Using data gathered in an online survey completed by 320 undergraduate students, principal axis factoring revealed three dimensions underlying perceived criminality of 18 cyber-harassing behaviours – deception/disclosure, harassing messages, and malicious software. Sending malicious software and harassing messages were perceived as criminal but participants were unsure about more ambiguous acts associated with deceiving or disclosing information to the victim. High Internet self-efficacious individuals (i.e., those who feel more in control of online interactions) were more likely than low Internet self-efficacious individuals to perceive malicious software as criminal. Low-agreeable individuals were more likely than high-agreeable individuals to perceive harassing messages as criminal. Whilst personality and Internet self-efficacy influenced perceived criminality for some cyber-harassing behaviours the findings were not consistent. However, females were more likely than males to perceive harassing messages and behaviours associated with deception/disclosure as criminal. Males were more likely than females to perceive sending malicious software as criminal. Participants reported experiencing a range of cyber-harassing behaviours and males were more likely than females to receive malicious software, be subscribed to unwanted services, receive abusive/threatening messages via the Internet, or to report that someone sent their friends/family/work colleagues email messages in an attempt to damage their reputation. Internet self-efficacious individuals were less likely to receive harassing messages via the Internet or be subscribed to unwanted services. Agreeable individuals were less likely to receive harassing messages to their phone, and neurotic individuals were unlikely to be subscribed to unwanted services. Participants' ratings of upset following their experience of cyber-harassing behaviours were positively associated with the number of behaviours they experienced, and females were more upset than males. Personality and Internet self-efficacy were not associated with ratings of upset but upset was associated with specific behaviours, indicating that the nature of cyber-harassment was problematic for participants. Furthermore, interpretative phenomenological analysis of 12 victims' experiences revealed the impact of cyber-harassment resembled PTSD-like symptoms, highlighting the detrimental impact cyber-harassment can have on victims. Despite the impact of cyber-harassment reported by victims, the qualitative research conducted for this thesis revealed that the virtual nature of their experiences caused confusion, as they struggled to understand whether their experiences were real in comparison to their offline experiences. The views of 17 non-victims and 8 police officers were subjected to thematic analysis which revealed victim-blaming tendencies. Non-victims were likely to blame the victim for their experiences and would offer support if they had adequate knowledge of the victim and evidence of cyber-harassing incidences. Police involvement in cyber-harassing cases was dependent on threats being made to the victim, and victims were perceived as unhelpful in providing evidence and following their advice. Non-victims viewed perpetrators more sympathetically than victims, and there was little understanding about the impact that cyber-harassment can have on victims. The findings from this research are discussed in terms of psychological theory, and suggest that 'just world' beliefs may play an important role in perceptions of cyber-harassment. A caveat is raised that the findings from this research are drawn from small, qualitative studies but the research provides some interesting insights to cyber-harassment, and it is hoped that the findings will be transferable to future research investigating the phenomenon.

This research investigates the mechanisms that underpin object location memory. It approaches this endeavour by examining a recently reported phenomenon of spatial memory, that of exclusivity. Exclusivity states that given the opportunity to encode or retrieve two spatial memories, only one memory is relied upon for object location. This implies that two memories for where an object is located are not better than one. The role of limited capacity has been implicated in the exclusive processing of multiple objects. Accordingly, the aim of this thesis is to explore possible methods that enhance cognitive capacity in a way to overcome exclusivity. These methods include expertise, semantics and learning. It was proposed that expertise would allow for holistic processing of information and it would therefore increase the likelihood of spatial memory integration. Also, the connection between two related spatial memories was manipulated through the employment of semantic categories to aid in paired memory recognition. In addition to this, a learning paradigm was used which allowed for repeated exposure of spatial information over a 5 and 10 day period. The results of these studies indicate a failure to overcome exclusivity. This suggests that exclusive processing is a robust feature of spatial memory. The findings offer a number of important insights for the field. They provide two important accounts for the processing of multiple object locations. One argues memories are encoded and retreival in a strategic manner to avoid interference. The second proposes fragments of memories are encoded and constructively drawn upon at recall. This thesis also puts forward a unique explanation of how multiple object locations are learnt over time.

As the Internet becomes increasingly ubiquitous and mobile, Internet addiction appears as a potential mental health problem in adolescents and students. From the reported negative consequences, it appears Internet addiction can have a variety of detrimental outcomes for young people that may require professional intervention. The unique contribution to knowledge of this research is (i) the assessment of the interplay between certain personality traits and the usage of specific Internet applications in contributing to an elevated risk of Internet addiction in two independent samples of 3,105 adolescents in the Netherlands and 2,257 university students in the UK, (ii) the development and testing of the concise Internet addiction components model using the quantitative data obtained, and (iii) the phenomenological exploration of the presenting problem of Internet addiction from the perspective of 20 psychotherapists from Europe, the USA, and Canada. A mixed methods approach was used in the form of psychometric measurement and qualitative interviews. Data were analysed using logistic regression, confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation modelling, and interpretative phenomenological analysis. The results of the empirical studies indicate that (i) Internet addiction symptoms are prevalent in approximately 3% of the included adolescent and student populations, (ii) certain personality traits and Internet application usages are risk factors for Internet addiction, (iii) the Internet addiction components model may facilitate initial assessment, and (iv) the presenting problem of Internet addiction is relevant for contemporary psychotherapeutic practice. Overall, this research supports the American Psychiatric Association’s decision to include Internet Gaming Disorder as distinct condition in the appendix of the revised diagnostic manual (DSM‐5), with beneficial consequences for treatment, research, and prevention efforts. Conclusively, additional support is offered for understanding Internet addiction as disease, not as a transient and easily dispensable by‐product of a technophilic generation’s new media consumption.

The recent critical focus on men and masculinities purports challenges to the dominance of ‘hegemonic’ or idealised dominant masculine scripts (Connell, 1995). Men’s increasing consumption of image enhancement products and especially facial cosmetics – aspects of so-called ‘metrosexuality’ (Simpson, 1994, 2002) – constitute one such example. Scholars have predominately examined ‘metrosexuality’ from sociological perspectives (Carniel, 2009; Coad, 2008; Miller, 2008) arguing it challenges gender and sexuality through an interest in feminised practices, but also by unhinging it from gender and sexuality as an asexual personal aesthetic lifestyle. Given that we know little of how self-identifying ‘metrosexuals’ define, construct and negotiate their identity in relation to other gender and sexual identities, these absences underpin this thesis. The wealth of Internet computer-mediated forms of communications provide fruitful datasets as newly forming identities like ‘metrosexual’ are arguably more easily claimed online in the absence of face-to-face interaction. This thesis examines four modes of electronic talk – an online magazine article and reader responses, forum contributions, video creator and viewer responses, marketing testimonials - with discursive psychological (Edwards & Potter, 1992) and membership categorisation analytical (Sacks, 1992) approaches. The analysis of the talk pays particular attention to the discursive features deployed in the construction of ‘metrosexual’ masculinity by both ‘metrosexuals’ and ‘non-metrosexuals’. The analysis also highlights the continued availability of, and difficulty in rejecting, conventional masculine scripts; men frequently reference sexual prowess, self-respect, corrective measures to combat the effects of extreme work and sport, whilst rejecting some of the features of conventional masculinity as outdated. This thesis shows how masculinity remains a multifaceted resource, which can be creatively deployed to fulfill various functions – to embrace contemporary social demands – making the study of ‘metrosexual’ masculinity an important and novel contribution to knowledge.

I subscribe to the notion that criminology needs to seek information about crime from successful criminals. Alohan is a Malaysian, ethnic Chinese, Triad member, businessman and police informer who also kidnaps people for ransom. He is a serious offender who has, so far, escaped conviction for kidnap, which is a capital offence in Malaysia. This thesis seeks to understand the factors underpinning Alohan’s lengthy and apparently successful criminal career but is subject to methodological constraints imposed by ethical and safety concerns. With methods such as participant observation ruled out, the research is based on a series of life history, narrative interviews, conducted with Alohan in a secure location. These are supplemented by semistructured interviews with: officers from Royal Malaysian Customs; officers from the Specialist Police Kidnap Unit of the Royal Malaysian Police, and ethnic Chinese businessmen. Alohan provides an account that can be examined and compared against influential strands of criminological thought in such areas as criminal careers, cultural criminology, subcultural tolerance of deviance and techniques of neutralisation. Alohan’s story reveals the highly culturally specific nature of most influential criminological theorising, which has almost exclusively been generated from a ‘western’ perspective. It uncovers the need for more comparative research in order to fill gaps and correct faulty assumptions that have arisen from the fairly narrow world-view that currently informs the field.

This project examined the similarities and differences of the coping process of English and Turkish adults. It focused on stress in close relationships and how individuals from these two cultures coped with it. A mixed method approach with a sequential mixed design consisting of an initial qualitative study followed by a quantitative study was applied. The qualitative study was exploratory and investigated the coping process of 10 English adults, 10 Turkish adults living in Turkey and 10 Turkish adults living in the UK through semi structured interviews. Turkish adults living in the UK were included in the study to investigate the effect of acculturation on the coping strategies of Turkish people. A grounded theory analysis was used which provided detailed information on the coping process of these groups. The results suggested that the Turkish participants used the coping strategies self expression, seeking social support, avoidance and problem solving more than the English participants. It was also found that as Turkish participants lived in UK for a while they used these coping strategies less frequently than the Turkish participants living in Turkey. Also as a result of the grounded theory analysis a model of coping patterns emerged which depicted the tendential order of successive coping strategies employed by the participants. In the quantitative study eight hypotheses about the primary appraisals and coping strategies of Turkish and English adults were formulated based on the findings of the grounded theory analysis and literature review. 300 Turkish (150 living in Turkey and 150 living in the UK) and 150 English adults completed the COPE and ALE scales. The hypotheses were tested through ANOVAs and hierarchical regression analysis. The findings of the quantitative study suggest that Turkish adults living in Turkey and the UK use active coping, planning, restraint coping, focus on and venting of emotions, and religion as coping strategies significantly more than English adults. There were also differences between the two Turkish groups. Turkish adults living in Turkey used significantly more planning, venting of emotions, seeking instrumental and emotional social support and religion than the Turkish adults living in the UK. Culture also affected the appraisal process. Turkish adults living in Turkey and UK appraised the stressful situation more as loss than the English adults. Overall the findings suggest that culture is a significant factor influencing the appraisal and coping process.

Ever since the National Lottery was introduced in 1994, there has been an increased prevalence of gambling in the UK. Technological innovation in this time has led to new ways in which people can gamble worldwide (e.g., internet gambling, mobile phone gambling and interactive television gambling), and increased accessibility to opportunities to gamble worldwide. The fastest growing form of gambling is internet gambling, however, little is understood in relation to the characteristics of internet gamblers, the psychosocial impact of internet gambling (e.g. problem gambling) and implications for public social policy. The overall aims of this thesis were to establish (i) what makes internet gambling potentially addictive, (ii) how is internet gambling located, accessed, and utilised by players, and (iii) what the salient structural and situational characteristics of internet gambling are and how these impacted (psychologically and socially) on peoples‘ lives. These aims were addressed through three stages of linked research utilising a multi-method design including a literature-based scoping study, in-depth interviews (n=40), and a comprehensive online survey (n=975) in order to triangulate the data to examine the psychosocial impact and potential addictiveness of internet gambling. The principal findings of this thesis noted certain structural characteristics have significantly more impact online than offline, and therefore the design of gambling websites can potentially manipulate gambling behaviour, thus making internet gambling potentially addictive. Gamblers were motivated to gamble online for the convenience, value for money, the greater variety of games, and anonymity. Inhibiting factors of online gambling included the reduced realism, the asocial nature of the internet, the use of electronic money, and concerns about the safety of online gambling websites. Predictors of online problem gambling were identified and included being male; having a disability; continued gambling after experiencing a near miss, lying about their age, engaging in two or more activities regularly, agreeing that internet gambling is more addictive than offline gambling.

At least 167 women are raped every day in the UK, yet rape remains one of the most under reported and least prosecuted of all violent crimes. Low conviction rates can be attributed in part to the failings of the criminal justice system including the infiltration of rape myths into said system and the ambiguity surrounding sexual consent. This thesis has drawn on data generated from eighteen semi-structured interviews and one focus group with men who have been convicted of (acquaintance) rape/aggravated rape. In doing so, this research has utilised critical discursive psychology to analyse the ways in which ‘rape myths’ and knowledge of sexual consent, coercion and refusal is incorporated into participants’ offence accounts. Findings suggest that offenders employ a variety of rape myths when accounting for their offence in accordance with particular issues of stake and interest. All of which is tied to the management of identity, sentence type and treatment received. Subscription to rape myths was often relatively subtle and was based on offenders’ accounts of their mens rea (or lack thereof) or their consumption of drugs and/or alcohol, rather than primarily about the culpability of their victim as the more historic rape myths might suggest. Furthermore, through offence accounts, participants were able to demonstrate a sophisticated articulation and appreciation of sexual refusals and negotiations through their ability to ‘hear’ sexual refusals which did not involve the word ‘no’ - reinforcing the subtle nature of sexual communication. These findings highlight that ‘knowledge’ of rape myths needs to be contemporised and that the legislation surrounding consent needs to incorporate all its subtleties. All of which has implications for the treatment of sexual offenders.

This thesis presents a new definition of the concept of political commitment. It shows how the concept can be operationalised for empirical research in parliamentary and executive settings, and reports findings from a study to measure the commitment of the Labour Government to its identity card policy. Drawing on literature from across the social sciences, the thesis derives an eight-limbed synthesis definition of the concept. This new definition is operationalised for empirical examination in a single case study of British identity cards policy between 2001 and 2006. The Labour government‘s stance towards compulsory identity cards remained robust in the face of strong parliamentary, media and pressure group opposition, and is offered as an ―extreme‖ case study of commitment. The thesis uses these findings to evaluate the concept formation and operationalisation process, and compares results in operationalising for the parliamentary and executive arenas. Data are drawn from elite interviews, parliamentary archives, biographies, and policy documents. The thesis concludes that this new approach to political commitment allows for a nuanced understanding of the concept, which offers a more accurate description of the relationship between governments and ―object‖ of their commitment than the existing theory permits. It also provides a solid foundation for the development of explanatory models of political commitment, in the future.