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This study attempts to elucidate aspects of the complex relationship between internal migration and development in Sierra Leone, a country marked by pronounced dualism. It argues that internal migration and its developmental facets such as remittances should be examined within their socio-economic and ecological context. The major findings can be summarised as follows: 1. Interregional migration was shown to be positively and significantly correlated with a composite index encompassing social and economic dimensions of development. 2. Since the trends in migration and development in the two sets of regions delineated positive net migration/more developed and negative net migration/less developed - have been in force for at least two decades and show no signs of narrowing regional inequality, suggest disequilibrium rather than equilibrium tendencies. This feature of the migration process was confirmed by analysis performed at the local level, which explicitly took into account, socio-economic and ecological factors along with the effects of government policies on rural outmigration. 3. A study of the determinants of interregional migration for a whole system, Sierra Leone, and its component economic sub-systems underline the importance of taking into consideration development dimensions in such analyses, 4. Finally, on the role of remittances in development, the study established that - a. Overall, that there was a net transfer of resources from the urban to the rural areas; b. In-remittances were found to be important to poorer rural households; c. Remittances received were used mainly for consumption purposes; and d. For the decision to send remittances, the common, significant variables for rural and urban households were those showing ties with origin areas; while for the decision on the size of remittances, they were the income of the head of the household and whether an unskilled manual worker or not.

Background: Despite the important, and well-established, link between poverty and poor health, previous research has shown that there is an ‘excess’ level of mortality in Scotland compared to England and Wales: that is, higher mortality seemingly not explained by differences in levels of socio-economic deprivation. This excess has been shown to be ubiquitous in Scotland, but greatest in and around Glasgow and the West Central Scotland conurbation. To investigate this further, the aims of this research were: first, to compare levels of mortality and deprivation – and, specifically, the extent to which differences in the latter explain differences in the former – between Glasgow and its two most comparable English cities, Liverpool and Manchester; and second, to investigate, by means of collection and analyses of new population survey data, some of the many hypotheses that have been proposed to explain Scotland’s, and Glasgow’s, ‘excess’ levels of poor health. Methods: Geographic Information System (GIS) software was used to create small geographical units for Glasgow comparable in size to those available for the English cities (average population size: 1,600). Rates of ‘income deprivation’ were calculated for these small areas across all three cities. All-cause and cause-specific standardised mortality ratios were calculated for Glasgow relative to Liverpool and Manchester, standardising for age, sex and income deprivation decile. In addition, a range of historical socio-economic and mortality data was analysed. Three of the previously suggested explanations for excess Scottish mortality were investigated: lower levels of social capital; a lower ‘Sense of Coherence’(SoC); and a different ‘psychological outlook’ (specifically, lower levels of optimism). To do so, a representative survey of the adult population of Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester was undertaken. Previously validated question sets and scales were used to measure the three hypotheses: levels of social capital were assessed by means of an expanded version of the Office for National Statistics (ONS) core ‘Social Capital Harmonised Question Set’ (covering views about the local area, civic participation, social networks and support, social participation, and reciprocity and trust); SoC was measured by Antonovsky’s 13-item scale (SOC-13); and levels of optimism were assessed using the Life Orientation Test (Revised) (LOT-R). The data were analysed by means of multivariate regression analyses, thus ensuring that any observed differences between the cities were independent of differences in the characteristics of the survey samples (age, gender, social class, ethnicity etc.). Results: The deprivation profiles of Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester were shown to be very similar: approximately a quarter of the total population of each city was classed as income deprived in 2005, with the distributions of deprivation across the cities’ small areas also extremely alike. Despite this, after statistical adjustment for any remaining differences in deprivation, premature deaths (<65 years) in the period 2003-07 were 30% higher in Glasgow compared to Liverpool and Manchester, with deaths at all ages almost 15% higher. This excess was seen across virtually the whole population: all adult age groups, males and females, and among those living in deprived and non-deprived neighbourhoods. However, a difference was observed between the excess for deaths at all ages and that for premature deaths. For the former, the 15% higher mortality was distributed fairly evenly across deprivation deciles, and the greatest contribution (in terms of causes of death) was from cancers and diseases of the circulatory system; in the latter case, the excess was much higher in comparisons of those living in the more, rather than less, deprived areas (particularly men), and was driven in particular by higher rates of death from alcohol, drugs and suicide. Importantly, the excess appears to be increasing over time. The analyses of the survey data showed SoC to be higher, not lower, among the Glasgow sample compared to those in both English cities. Levels of optimism (measured by the LOT-R scale) were very similar in Glasgow and Liverpool, and higher than that measured among the Manchester sample. Although not all aspects of social capital presented the Glasgow sample in a more negative light, Glasgow respondents were, however, characterised by lower levels of social participation, trust and reciprocity. A number of these differences were greatest in comparisons of those of higher, rather than lower, socio-economic status. Conclusions: As currently measured, socio-economic deprivation does not appear to explain the differences in mortality between the cities: there is a high level of ‘excess’ mortality in Glasgow compared to the English cities. While many theories have been proposed to explain this, on the basis of the analyses included within this thesis, it seems highly unlikely that two of these – lower Sense of Coherence and a different psychological outlook (optimism) – play a part. However, it is possible that differences in aspects of social capital may play a role in explaining some of the excess, particularly that observed in comparisons of less deprived populations. The concluding chapter of the thesis argues that excess mortality in Scotland and, in particular, its largest city, is a deeply complex phenomenon: the causes, therefore, are likely to be equally complex and multifactorial. It is postulated that, given the fundamental link between deprivation and mortality, the essence and reality of deprivation experienced by sections of Glasgow’s population may not have been fully captured by the measures employed within research to date. More speculatively, the role of history may be important in seeking to identify the potentially different, unmeasured, facets of deprivation experienced by people in Glasgow compared to those in Liverpool and Manchester. It is also possible that protective factors (relating to, for example, ethnicity and social capital) may be at work in the two comparator English cities. However, given that excess mortality has been shown for all parts of Scotland compared to England & Wales, and not just Glasgow, this is not in any way a complete explanation.

Pakistan, a late starter in fertility transition, has been experiencing a rapid fertility decline since 1990. Although existing research often presents patriarchal family systems as a major reason for the delay of the onset of this transition, there is no empirical study investigating the transformations in these family systems or intrafamilial power relationships during the ongoing transition. Published research also often fails to reflect the complex nature and processes behind this fertility transition as it lacks diachronic analysis and remains within disciplinary boundaries. This thesis contributes to filling these gaps through investigating the social processes underpinning the fertility decline in Punjab, Pakistan by: 1. employing an interdisciplinary approach that links demography with sociology, and quantitative approaches with qualitative ones, to provide a more comprehensive analysis of fertility and family change 2. employing an intergenerational approach that enables diachronic analysis of the differences in the reproductive careers of two generations of women and the actors’ perceptions of factors contributing to these differences 3. providing multiple perspectives of family members regarding the reasons for fertility change, how reproduction is negotiated within the existing power hierarchies in the family, and how familial power relationships evolve to adjust these changes The study employs a two-phased explanatory sequential mixed methods approach. Phase one utilises two existing Demographic and Health Surveys to compare the changes in fertility preferences and behaviour of Punjabi women aged 25-34 in 1990/1 and 2006/7. Phase two is a qualitative study conducted in Punjab in 2010/11 among young women, their mothers, mothers-in-law and husbands to gather data on their perceptions of reasons for fertility change and the ways in which families and family relationships bearing on reproductive decision-making has transformed during the ongoing transition. The findings show that “planning a family”, which was seen to be in the hands of God among the older generation, has entered into the “calculus of conscious choice” among young women who have specific preferences with regard to when and how many children to have. This transition has mainly been a response to rapid socioeconomic developments and improved living conditions that are paradoxically experienced as growing economic constraints for the households through increasing costs of childbearing and rearing as well as generating aspirations for social mobility. This was also complemented by changes in values and attitudes regarding family planning, parenthood and familial relationships led by institutional changes and policy developments including expansion of family planning programme, changing religious stances about family planning, the spread of mass media, and increased (importance given to) female schooling. All of these developments also coincide with a subtle transformation of family systems in Punjab, as well as a limited dissolution of previously existing power relationships within the families by expansion of the boundaries of gender roles, honour and obedience. Although young women are expected to be obedient to their husbands and mothers-in-law with regard to fertility decisions, they have been able to influence the power dynamics between themselves and their mothers-in-law by building stronger conjugal relationships and being submissive to their husbands’ desires.

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