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This thesis applies critical linguistic perspectives and methodologies to reassess the participation of media discourses in the operation of criminal trails by jury in Great Britain and the United States. Trial by media has been traditionally perceived as an infrequent and high profile phenomenon which is regulated by statutes and conventions operational in these legal arenas. This research utilizes a critical-forensic interface, applying critical discourse analysis to media representations of crime alongside forensic discourse analysis of the linguistic renderings of the courtroom trial, to redefine trial by media as a systematic and routine process. The critical-forensic interface developed in this thesis reconceives the role of the media in the courtroom on a Spectrum of Trial by Media. Trial by media is reshaped as three simultaneous processes by this restructuring. Direct Trial by Media analyses the theoretical function of courtroom jurors coveted for the 'community values' they bring to the trial process in light of critical awareness of the ideological operation of discourse in constructing and maintaining crimes for readers, who are also potential jurors. Enhanced Trial by Media combines a thorough forensic linguistic examination of the discursive vulnerability of jurors in court with critical discourse analysis of the media-made crimes which fill the resultant comprehension gap. Reinforced Trial by Media examines the language strategies of courtroom advocates in constructing crimes for jurors already reliant on these media- made pre-trial conceptualisations. This thesis establishes that media constructions of crime are present at varying levels of the trial process, demonstrating that the trial by jury system itself, as well as the specific linguistic and discursive renderings of the trial in court, and the participants herein, accommodate, enhance and reinforce the systematic process of trial by media.

This study analyses the factors which determine the reputation of governmental research departments and/or organisations in Bahrain. Reputation in this context refers to the extent to which research scientists regard the department in which they work as a good place or bad place to practise science. Thus it is internal rather than external reputation which is in question. Research scientists in departments within sixteen ministries and organisations were included in the study. The sample of 163 respondents was representative in terms of age, sex, qualifications and experience of the research scientists in the organisations covered. All the research scientists were educated to at least the level of Bachelor of Science (BSc) and in some cases had obtained a higher degree, Master of Science or Doctor of Philosophy. The views of the research scientists were collected by means of a questionnaire which contained 98 Likert-type questions. The relationships between the independent variables and the dependent variable, reputation, were examined using correlation and multi-variate analysis. The factors which contributed most to the perception of reputation were identified. Innovatory climate (INNO) emerged as the main determinant of internal reputation, job satisfaction (JSAT) as the second most important determinant, academic and scientific reputation (ACADM) as the third and working conditions (WCON) as the fourth determinant of internal reputation. The reputation equation with the contribution of each factor to the variance is summarised as: Reputation: INNO (51.4%); JSAT (7%); ACADM (2.3%); WCON (1%). This result confirms the result of the UK study by Jones (1996) which established innovatory climate and job satisfaction as the main determinants of internal reputation amongst RandD scientists in UK.

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Between February 1992 and February 1995, observations were made of 33 heavily-policed crowd events occurring both in Turkey and England & Wales. Informal interviews were conducted with prominent Turkish and British police public order training instructors and practitioners. These interviews often occurred in the context of visits to specialist public order training locations where training exercises and drills were witnessed first hand. Finally, the researcher attended three major public order courses for senior British police officers. These data formed the bedrock of a comparative approach to understanding crowd behaviour and critically evaluating police crowd control techniques. This research analyses the underlying assumptions contained within the existing theories in the field and attempts to adjudicate on the validity of both classical and modern contributions to the understanding of the field. Two hypotheses are considered, first; 'Crowd phenomena like other social issues cannot be examined within the boundaries of a single discipline'. This has led to development of a theory, the 'Combined Factors Approach' (CFA) which attempts to examine the behaviour of crowd using a multitude of factors. The second hypothesis is; 'In terms of exercising their function in so-called public order events, the police, far from being a neutral institution serve and protect the interest of its political masters and the ruling classes rather than serving the entire community'. Observations of existing public order policing practices suggest the validity of a radical and Marxist argument, that the police are an apparatus of the state and therefore of the ruling classes. The thesis concludes that any public order policing regardless of the political system it serves, will tend to be relatively paramilitary and oppressive.

The primary concern of this thesis is to examine changes in policing practice with reference to police/public relations in England and Wales in the light of evidence of a deterioration of the relationships between the police and the public. The secondary aim is to examine the implications for policing policy in Turkey of the lessons learned from the experience of such experiments and changes in the development of policing policy in England and Wales. The thesis argues that a community-based model of policing is the ideal for policing of modern liberal democratic societies; and community policing practices are transferable to countries striving to develop modern democratic systems such as Turkey. The thesis assesses the prognosis for the achievement of this ideal in both countries. It emphasises that community policing has become the new orthodoxy for the police in England and Wales, as well as in other countries around the world. Although the movement's philosophies and practices are spreading rapidly, much of the debate is carried out at a rhetorical level and little is known about the range of ongoing activities, the components of these experimental initiatives, the problems and challenges encountered, and the level of success in achieving objectives. There are fundamental differences in the historical development and political position of the police forces in these two countries. However, police services are under pressure from diverse interests and constituencies to change their styles of policing in order to secure legitimate law enforcement in the light of rapid social change. The reasons for this pressure for change will be examined in both countries. Firstly, the British experience will be analysed notably with reference to the historical antecedents which secured a broad legitimacy for a consensual style of policing which it may be argued is in existence despite serious outbreaks of urban disorder. However, the thesis shows that the gulf between the police and some sections of the community is widening, resulting in a substantial proportion (notably of the black population) lacking confidence and trust in the police. Interest has also focused on the apparent failure of some police forces to control crime. Secondly, the history of the current Turkish police tradition is analysed and rationales for change explained with fluctuations in police/public legitimacy traced and accounted for. Pressure for change to enhance police legitimacy and public relations is identified and the possibility of lessons being learned from the British experience assessed, notably with reference to initiatives to present the police as a service to communities. The thesis concludes that, both for England and Wales and Turkey, the success of community policing initiatives is heavily dependent on the commitment and participation of both sides, the police and the community in both countries.

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This thesis describes how wireless networks can inadvertently leak and broadcast users' personal information despite the correct use of encryption. Users would likely assume that their activities (for example, the program or app they are using) and personal information (including age, religion, sexuality and gender) would remain confidential when using an encrypted network. However, we demonstrate how the analysis of encrypted traffic patterns can allow an observer to infer potentially sensitive data remotely, passively, undetectably, and without any network credentials. Without the ability to read encrypted WiFi traffic directly, the limited side-channel data available is processed. Following an investigation to determine what information is available and how it can be represented, it was determined that the comparison of various permutations of timing and frame size information is sufficient to distinguish specific user activities. The construction of classifiers via machine learning (Random Forests) utilising this side-channel information represented as histograms allows for the detection of user activity despite WiFi encryption. Studies showed that Skype voice traffic could be identified despite being interleaved with other activities. A subsequent study then demonstrated that mobile apps could be individually detected and, concerningly, used to infer potentially sensitive information about users due to their personalised nature. Furthermore, a full prototype system is developed and used to demonstrate that this analysis can be performed in real-time using low-cost commodity hardware in real-world scenarios. Avenues for improvement and the limitations of this approach are identified, and potential applications for this work are considered. Strategies to prevent these leaks are discussed and the effort required for an observer to present a practical privacy threat to the everyday WiFi user is examined.

This thesis explores how knowledge and the construction of risk are developed within criminal justice and how meanings of risk are different or similar to an individual offender’s perspective within their everyday context. By drawing together macro sociological notions of risk, with the lived experiences of how individual offenders experience their world in a micro context, the thesis explores the ways in which expert-led contemporary notions of risk are designed to serve the purpose and practice of criminal justice at the expense of creative ways of thinking about risk. By deconstructing current ways of thinking about risk, this study examines how modern scientific ways of thinking about risk, and how expert discourses of risk assessment have come to hold such importance within criminal justice. Using an investigative case study approach, the thesis maps the conditions within which risk discourses are produced, sustained and reproduced, and identifies the truth claims which are made within the context of criminal justice risk assessment and management practices. This constitutes an important comparative backdrop to understanding offenders’ emotive and experiential perspectives on offending in the context of their everyday. Insights derived from discourse theory are utilised in order to analyse selected cases of the phenomenon of risk as mobilised within ‘real-life’ experiential contexts; this enhances contemporary understandings of this relatively under-researched dimension of the risk assessment process. The study is offered as a contribution to a criminological body of scholarship that has been largely neglected an area of risk that draws attention to young people’s voices and their everyday experiences of offending.

This study explores the phenomenon of domestic cannabis cultivation in the UK and examines its impact on the wider cannabis market. Cannabis growers were studied using both traditional and on-line ethnographic methods. Data was analysed both to produce a description of cannabis cultivation (and cannabis cultivators) in Britain and to analyse how domestic production of cannabis fits into our wider understanding of illegal drug markets. The thesis explores UK cannabis growing on a number of levels. Firstly it seeks to describe how cannabis is grown in Britain. Some is grown outside in natural conditions but most British cannabis is grown indoors with increasingly hi-tech cultivation methods being utilised. The method employed by an individual grower will depend on his opportunities, his intention for the crop and any ideological position which may influence his choice. We then explore who is involved in cannabis growing. At a basic level featuresdemographic and' ideological' - common to cannabis growers are considered. At a deeper level a typology of cannabis growers is offered based predominantly on motivation and ideology. The key point here is that a large number of cannabis growers seek no financial reward whatsoever for their involvement in what is essentially an act of drug trafficking. Others grow cannabis to make money, but are equally motivated by non-financial 'drivers'. Still others are mostly or entirely driven by financial considerations. These growers often display the same hall-marks as other organised crime outfits. Consumer concerns can be seen to influence the market with smaller independent 'social' and 'social/commercial' growers offering an ideo logical - ethical, even - alternative to larger scale organised crime outfits. Finally explanations for the recent surge in domestic cannabis cultivation are offered along with predictions for the future domestic production, not just of cannabis but other drugs as well.