This study was an investigation of the attribution of social causality by delinquents and non-delinquents. For this purpose, an attempt was made to construct a locus of control scale with item contents relevant to the limited life spaces of young people. The resulting Causal Attribution Scale for Children (C.A.S.C.) yielded validity and reliability indices good enough to encourage its use in the substantive investigation. To test the similarity in developmental antecedents between internal control orientation and high self-esteem, the relationship between the attributional orientations of subjects and their self-esteem was investigated along with sex, age and social class differences in both constructs. Delinquents were drawn from a remand home, a community home, and borstal institutions. Controls were drawn from various secondary schools, a technical college, and from a group of interviewees for university places. Results showed that delinquents were both significantly more external in control orientation and lower in self-esteem than controls. Intra-delinquent group differences showed that remand home delinquents were significantly more external but nonsignificant ly lower in self-esteem than all other groups of delinquents. Community home delinquents, though of the same age range as remand home delinquents, did well enough to be non-significantly different in both constructs from the much older borstal subjects. Suggestions that could yield administrative and therapeutic advantages were made. While borstal boys were more internal in orientation and higher in self-esteem than borstal girls, female controls were more internal than male controls but lower in self-esteem than the latter. No social class differences were found. Delinquency played a major role vis a vis the differences foundin the study. In contrast to controls, delinquents were also significantly more inclined to positive reinforcements. Locus of control correlated more highly with self-esteem for controls than for delinquents and more highly for males than for females, possibly reflecting the differential treatment by society of males, females, and young offenders. It was concluded that, among other things, a refined C.A.S.C. with the T.S.C.S. could effectively aid the detection and management of problems of delinquency.

Intelligence-led policing and the introduction of the National Intelligence Model have emphasised the need to gather information around the crimes and characteristics of prolific offenders. The police and crime analysts have been tasked to find more reliable, efficient ways to carry out methods such as suspect prioritisation („offender profiling‟) and case linkage. Three tenets underpinning such tasks are homology (Alison, Bennell, Mokros, & Ormerod, 2002), offender consistency (for example, Canter, 1995) and inter-offender variation (for example, Goodwill & Alison, 2007). Research considering homology has drawn varied conclusions, with some studies providing support for this (for example, Canter & Fritzon, 1998), and others finding that, offenders who behave in similar ways within their crimes, do not readily share similar characteristics (for example, Mokros & Alison, 2002). Research investigating the consistency hypothesis, however, has been more promising, with support for the consistent exhibition of particular behaviours over crime series (for example, Bennell & Canter, 2002). There has been a consensus that elements of the offenders‟ spatial behaviour, notably inter-crime proximity, is consistent across crimes and provides particular accuracy at predicting whether two crimes are linked (for example, Markson, Woodhams, & Bond, 2010). Ideas drawn from environmental criminology theories, such as Routine Activity Theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979) help to explain why offenders usually commit offences in locations that are close together. Moreover, ideas from personality theory highlight the particular consistency of behaviours that are within the offenders‟ control (Funder & Colvin, 1991) which may explain why spatial behaviours are especially useful (Bennell & Jones, 2005). In addition, researchers have called for a more detailed examination of the impact context (such as the location of the offence) has on the exhibition of behaviours within crimes (Mokros & Alison, 2002). A recently developed model highlights the dynamic nature of the rape event, and how geographic and offence behaviours may interact (Beauregard, Proulx, Rossmo, & Leclerc, 2007). However, this model is limited in its application to the investigation of rapes perpetrated by an unknown offender, it uses analysis techniques that may not fully explore the qualitative inter-relationships between geographical and behavioural variables and it is based on a model (Rossmo, 1997) that has not been empirically tested (van der Kemp & van Koppen, 2001). Thus, the aim of this thesis was to develop a model of the spatial mobility of stranger rapists within their offences and examine how this behaviour is related to offence behaviour. Moreover, the ability of the model to predict offender background characteristics („offender profiling‟) and link crimes together is considered. The records of 112 detected stranger rape cases occurring between 2004 and 2006, reported to the Metropolitan Police Service were used as the main data set for this thesis. Thematic analysis resulted in four Geo-mobility styles being established; Intruded, Ambushed, Abducted and Followed. These were found to be related to three behavioural themes; Intruded rapes were related to those which reflected a broad Criminal style, Ambushed and Followed rapes were associated to those which reflected a broad Violent style, whilst Abducted rapes were associated to those which reflected a broad Sexual style. The Geo-mobility styles were not useful in predicting offender background characteristics, but neither were other spatial or offence behaviours. The Geo-mobility styles were also not exhibited consistently over a linked series (a sub-sample of the original data set). However, inter-initial approach and inter-attack proximity were found to be both consistent and accurate at predicting case linkage. Findings are discussed in terms of theories of rape behaviour, theories of spatial behaviour and ideas about homology, consistency and inter-offender variation. The implications for offender profiling and case linkage are considered, as well as the limitations of the present study and future research ideas.

The criminalisation of seafarers has been observed as a growing phenomenon for more than thirty years, presenting a picture of increasing liability upon the Master even though their responsibilities remain essentially unchanged in generations of maritime law. Over the same period, the structure of the maritime environment in which they work has changed dramatically, as evidenced by the complex evolution of Fleet Ownership and Management and the resultant challenges in identifying the party liable in a potential action. Paradoxically, the person least able to influence such changes has been the Master, who has seen the key features of their traditional relationship with the ship operator blurring, as the structure of maritime operations has evolved with the demands of social and economic change. The effect of these changes has left the Master with diminishing management influence without losing responsibility. They remain Master Under God, but without God’s authority over the management of the ship’s affairs. Faced with an increasing amount of criminal prosecutions globally in recent decades, the shipping industry has met the phenomenon with growing dismay, the downstream consequence of which has raised questions challenging the proportionality and, indeed, the fairness, of criminal accountability, in what is perceived by the maritime community to be a disharmonised system worldwide. The purpose of this work is to examine the many facets of the mischief with which the phenomenon confronts the Master in their professional conduct, both in terms of Flag State and Port State obligations. But the purpose goes further than that, for upon this foundation we can then synthesise options for a solution. Ultimately, this thesis is all about the perception of justice in a globalised maritime community in the twenty first century – but the real challenge is to rationalise a new approach to criminalisation, which would meet the interests of justice both for the Master and the State. In the harsh reality of intractable disputes in the twenty first century, that new approach might mean a compromise, which may not be ideal for the Master or for the State, but would be something which both can live with.

This thesis is based on a case study of the evaluation of an employment programme for drug-using offenders. Initially, my involvement was that of a studentship-funded research assistant, undertaking the associated duties and expectations of that role and working to an already agreed evaluation design. This design can be broadly categorised as quantitative, longitudinal, and summative. Subsequently, my role evolved, as did the evaluation methodology itself, becoming underpinned by Patton's notion of Utilisation Focus', and infused by the, what was initially unarticulated, constructivist hesitation I brought to the endeavour. The findings from the evaluation, which relate to direct Project outputs, staff and service user satisfaction, and service user motivation to participate in the evaluation, are presented. Primary intended user' response to these, as well as the evaluation itself, are gauged from interviews undertaken after a reading of the evaluation final report. I then consider what this case study of one evaluation might tell us about the art of evaluation itself. What might be the lessons for valuation which could be useful for others?

This thesis is a study of the sociological significance of crime and punishment discourse in early-nineteenth-century broadsides. Broadsides were a form of street literature and, for almost 300 years until the late nineteenth century, were a forerunner to our modern tabloid newspapers. As such, they were published on a wide range of topics, but by far the most prevalent were those covering violent crime, especially murder, and the public execution of criminals. The publication of this genre of broadside reached a peak in the first half of the nineteenth century and its popular appeal was greatest among the labouring poor. This has led several scholars to propose two prominent, yet contrasting, arguments: namely, that this ‘gallows literature’ should be read as either evidence of attempts at ideological social control or merely as a form of debased, sensationalistic entertainment. However, this thesis proposes that broadsides actually reveal ordinary people’s thoughts and feelings about crime and criminal justice and, as such, reflect common moralities and mentalities. By presenting a detailed discourse analysis of 650 broadsides printed all over Britain between the years 1800-1850, this thesis provides an alternative interpretation as to the form, function and meaning of their narratives of crime. This interpretation is based upon the social theories of Emile Durkheim, who recognised the higher utility of crime and punishment as being one of social integration and the preservation of moral boundaries. The central argument of this thesis, therefore, is that broadsides relating to crime and punishment were a form of moral communication for the masses and that they are examples of how the working class once attempted to bolster a sense of stability and community, during the transitional years of the early nineteenth century, by effectively representing both a consolidation and celebration of their core values and beliefs.

This study investigates the discursive patterns of interactions between police interviewers and women reporting rape in significant witness interviews. Data in the form of video recorded interviews were obtained from a UK police force for the purposes of this study. The data are analysed using a multi-method approach, incorporating tools from micro-sociology, Conversation Analysis and Discursive Psychology, to reveal patterns of interactional control, negotiation, and interpretation. The study adopts a critical approach, which is to say that as well as describing discursive patterns, it explains them in light of the discourse processes involved in the production and consumption of police interview talk, and comments on the relationship between these discourse processes and the social context in which they occur. A central focus of the study is how interviewers draw on particular interactional resources to shape interviewees? accounts in particular ways, and this is discussed in relation to the institutional role of the significant witness interview. The discussion is also extended to the ways in which mainstream rape ideology is both reflected in, and maintained by, the discursive choices of participants. The findings of this study indicate that there are a number of issues to be addressed in terms of the training currently offered to officers at Level 2 of the Professionalising Investigation Programme (PIP) (NPIA, 2009) who intend to conduct significant witness interviews. Furthermore, a need is identified to bring the linguistic and discursive processes of negotiation and transformation identified by the study to the attention of the justice system as a whole. This is a particularly pressing need in light of judicial reluctance to replace written witness statements, the current „end product? of significant witness interviews, with the video recorded interview in place of direct examination in cases of rape.

Recontextualisation involves repetition and change; it is central to police work. Officers routinely transform the words of the legal institution by explaining them to lay people and they routinely transform the words of lay people for institutional use. This thesis explores police officers’ transformations of written and spoken language in two situations. First, in explaining the rights of detainees in custody and secondly, in collecting witness’ spoken accounts during investigations. The forms and functions of recontextualisation in police work are illustrated through the analysis of naturally occurring data, ethnographic observations and qualitative interviews. The investigation shows that recontexutalisations in these legal contexts are characterised by personalisation, collaboration and appropriation. Through personalisation, officers and detainees make rights texts relevant to detainees’ decisions. Through collaboration, officers share practices amongst themselves and create new formulations with lay people. Finally, through personalisation, routine procedures become vehicles for wide-ranging interpersonal and experiential work. Both officers and detainees exhibit sophisticated metalinguistic awareness, reflecting on their own recontextualisation practices and other practices that they encounter. The thesis concludes that recontextualisation in the police station is not simply about transmission of information and that its many other levels of meaning might usefully be recognised.

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This PhD submission is on the basis of a selection of the candidate's published works. It is argued that the accumulated papers and the more recently published book, "Policing and the media: facts, fictions and factions" together display coherence and progression, and have made an original contribution to knowledge through the development and promotion of a distinctive Anglo-Japanese perspective on policing styles and images. Innovation is further demonstrated through critical evaluation and updating of earlier studies on policing styles and images in Britain and Japan, by professors Reiner and Bayley respectively.